# Cu(II) enhances the effect of Alzheimer’s amyloid-β peptide on microglial activation

## TL;DR

Copper ions increase the harmful effects of Alzheimer's peptides on brain immune cells, leading to increased inflammation and nerve damage.

## Contribution

Demonstrates that Cu(II) binding to Aβ peptides enhances microglial activation and neurotoxicity through NF-κB and mitochondrial ROS.

## Key findings

- Cu(II)-Aβ complex induces microglial activation and release of TNF-α and nitric oxide.
- NF-κB activation and mitochondrial ROS are involved in Cu(II)-Aβ-induced neurotoxicity.
- N-acetyl-cysteine inhibits Cu(II)-Aβ-triggered microglial neurotoxic effects.

## Abstract

Aggregated forms of amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides are important triggers for microglial activation, which is an important pathological component in the brains of Alzheimer’s patients. Cu(II) ions are reported to be coordinated to monomeric Aβ, drive Aβ aggregation, and potentiate Aβ neurotoxicity. Here we investigated whether Cu(II) binding modulates the effect of Aβ on microglial activation and the subsequent neurotoxicity.

Aβ peptides were incubated with Cu(II) at an equimolar ratio to obtain the Cu(II)-Aβ complex. Primary and BV-2 microglial cells were treated with Cu(II)-Aβ, Aβ, or Cu(II). The tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and nitric oxide levels in the media were determined. Extracellular hydrogen peroxide was quantified by a fluorometric assay with Amplex Red. Mitochondrial superoxide was detected by MitoSOX oxidation.

Incubation of Cu(II) with Aβ confers different chemical properties on the resulting complex. At the subneurotoxic concentrations, Cu(II)-Aβ (but not Aβ or Cu(II) alone) treatment induced an activating morphological phenotype of microglia and induced the microglial release of TNF-α and nitric oxide as well as microglia-mediated neuronal damage. Cu(II)-Aβ-triggered microglial activation was blocked by nuclear factor (NF)-κB inhibitors and was accompanied with NF-κB activation. Moreover, Cu(II)-Aβ induced hydrogen peroxide release, which was not affected by NADPH oxidase inhibitors. Mitochondrial superoxide production was increased after Cu(II)-Aβ stimulation. N-acetyl-cysteine, a scavenger of reactive oxygen species (ROS), inhibited Cu(II)-Aβ-elicited microglial release of TNF-α and nitric oxide as well as the microglia-mediated neurotoxic effect.

Our observations suggest that Cu(II) enhances the effect of Aβ on microglial activation and the subsequent neurotoxicity. The Cu(II)-Aβ-triggered microglial activation involves NF-κB activation and mitochondrial ROS production.

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12974-015-0343-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.