# Natural warning signals unexpectedly shape human metamemory ratings but not image recognition success

## TL;DR

This study shows that bold warning signals in animals make people think they'll remember them better, but don't actually help with recognition later.

## Contribution

The study reveals that aposematic signals influence human metamemory but not recognition memory, introducing the concept of 'memorability' in visual signals.

## Key findings

- Aposematic patterns led to higher metamemory ratings but not better recognition memory.
- Observers consistently remembered or forgot the same aposematic images, suggesting intrinsic memorability.
- Effective warning signals may rely more on initial perception than on memory recall.

## Abstract

Although the bold warning signals of prey (known as aposematic) have been shown to facilitate predator learning through repeated encounters, it remains unclear to what extent their visual patterns and colours support memory retention. Here, we tested whether aposematic species appear more memorable to human observers, and whether they have an intrinsic advantage in being recognised from memory—even after a single exposure. Observers viewed images of aposematic and non-aposematic butterflies and moths, judged how likely they were to remember each one (metamemory rating), and later completed a test distinguishing previously seen species from novel ones (recognition memory). While aposematic patterns elicited higher metamemory ratings upon first sight, we found no evidence that they were more likely to be recognised when seen again. Despite this apparent metacognitive failure, for aposematic species the observers tend to remember and forget the same images as one another. This suggests that these images exhibit ‘memorability’, an intrinsic property of an image that allows one to predict how well images can be remembered. These findings raise the possibility that an effective visual warning may hinge less on recognition of a previously seen signal, and more on perceptual processes at play when it is first encountered.

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-026-41178-y.