# A Practical Diagnostic Approach to Non-Drowning Asphyxia in Animals: Forensic Pathology and Biomarkers

## TL;DR

This paper reviews the challenges and diagnostic methods for identifying non-drowning asphyxia in animals, focusing on forensic pathology and biomarkers.

## Contribution

The paper provides a comprehensive review of recent advancements in diagnosing non-drowning asphyxia in veterinary forensics.

## Key findings

- Non-drowning asphyxia often presents subtle and non-specific macroscopic signs, complicating diagnosis.
- Ancillary tests and thorough crime scene analysis are crucial for accurate diagnosis of asphyxiation in animals.
- Different mechanisms of asphyxia require distinct diagnostic approaches in veterinary forensic pathology.

## Abstract

Cases of animal abuse represent a serious yet vastly underreported problem. Among these, the diagnosis of non-drowning asphyxia is particularly challenging in the field of veterinary forensics, often requiring a careful and thorough evaluation of the crime scene, testimonies, circumstances surrounding death and the associated lesions. This review offers a comprehensive analysis of the main pathological findings, diagnostic issues and recent advancements in ancillary tests associated with non-drowning asphyxia in animals.

The term asphyxia refers to a disruption in brain function due to rapid and persistent cerebral hypoxia or anoxia as a consequence of accidental or non-accidental injury. Considering the different mechanisms that may determine asphyxiation, such injuries can be referred to different categories: strangulation (death by hanging, ligature or manual strangulation), suffocation (smothering, choking, confined spaces and vitiated atmosphere), mechanical asphyxia (positional and traumatic asphyxia) and drowning (submersion or immersion in liquid). In both human and veterinary forensic practice, fatal asphyxia is considered among the most diagnostically challenging categories of sudden death, as it often produces only subtle and non-pathognomonic macroscopic signs, which can be easily covered by post-mortem alterations. Therefore, a wide range of information is often needed for the diagnosis of asphyxiation, including medical history, crime scene analysis, testimonies and physical evidence, along with the macroscopic and histological findings. The following review addresses the main lesions, ancillary tests and diagnostic issues associated with non-drowning asphyxia in veterinary forensic pathology.