# Synergistic Therapeutic Effects of Tetrahydroberberine Combined with Protopanaxadiol on PCPA-Induced Insomnia in Rats: Involvement of the Microbiota–Gut–Brain Axis and Regulation of PI3K/AKT/AGE-RAGE Pathways

## TL;DR

Combining THB and PPD improves insomnia in rats by regulating gut bacteria, brain signaling, and inflammation.

## Contribution

A novel combination therapy using THB and PPD shows synergistic effects in treating insomnia via the microbiota–gut–brain axis and PI3K/AKT/AGE-RAGE pathways.

## Key findings

- THB + PPD combination reduced sleep latency by 56.2% and increased sleep duration by 112.8% compared to monotherapies.
- The combination restored neurotransmitter balance and suppressed HPA axis overactivation in insomnia rats.
- Gut microbiota analysis showed increased beneficial bacteria and improved glycine–serine–threonine metabolism.

## Abstract

Aim: This study investigated the synergistic therapeutic effects and underlying mechanisms of tetrahydroberberine (THB) combined with protopanaxadiol (PPD) on p-chlorophenylalanine (PCPA)-induced insomnia in rats. Methods: Rats were randomly divided into normal, model, diazepam, THB monotherapy, PPD monotherapy, and THB + PPD combination groups. Evaluations included the pentobarbital sleep test, HE staining, ELISA, 16S rRNA sequencing, metabolomics, and Western blot. Results: Results demonstrated that the THB + PPD combination exhibited significant synergistic effects compared with monotherapies: the combination shortened sleep latency by 56.2% (vs. 44.2% for THB alone and 20.7% for PPD alone) and prolonged sleep duration by 112.8% (vs. 70.2% for THB and 59.6% for PPD) relative to the model group, while effectively restoring body weight gain. Histologically, combined treatment significantly alleviated hippocampal neuronal damage and increased the number of intact neurons in the dentate gyrus. Molecularly, it upregulated brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) levels, restored neurotransmitter balance (serotonin, dopamine, and glutamate), suppressed overactivation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis (reducing corticotropin-releasing hormone and corticosterone), and decreased pro-inflammatory cytokine expression. Gut microbiota analysis revealed that the combination restored microbial homeostasis (increasing beneficial bacteria such as *Lactobacillus*) and modulated the glycine–serine–threonine metabolic pathway. Mechanistically, THB + PPD synergistically activated the PI3K/AKT neurotrophic pathway (p-PI3K and p-AKT expression increased by 1.9-fold and 2.5-fold, respectively, vs. model), inhibited the AGE/RAGE pro-inflammatory axis (RAGE expression decreased by 31.8%), and enhanced blood–brain barrier integrity by upregulating tight junction proteins (ZO-1, Occludin). Conclusions: THB combined with PPD exerts synergistic anti-insomnia effects through multi-level regulation of the microbiota–gut–brain axis, neurochemical balance, and key signaling pathways, providing a promising foundation for developing safe natural product-based combination therapies.