# Vertical Force–Velocity Profiling in Soccer: A Systematic Review of Evidence, Assumptions, and Limitations

## TL;DR

This review evaluates how vertical force-velocity profiling is used in soccer, highlighting its limitations and inconsistent evidence for practical training applications.

## Contribution

The paper systematically reviews methodological and practical constraints of vertical F–V profiling in soccer, emphasizing its limited ecological validity.

## Key findings

- Associations between vertical F–V variables and performance are task-dependent and inconsistent.
- Youth players show developmental increases in F0 and Pmax, affecting variability.
- Individualized F–V training modifies mechanical parameters but does not consistently improve performance.

## Abstract

Background: This systematic review critically examined how vertical force–velocity profiling has been used and interpreted in soccer research, with particular attention to methodological limitations and practical constraints. Methods: Following PRISMA guidelines, four databases were searched up to January 2025, and eleven studies met the inclusion criteria. Results: Several studies reported statistical associations between vertical F–V variables (particularly Pmax and V0) and jump- and sprint-related outcomes; however, these associations were heterogeneous, task-dependent, and sensitive to modeling assumptions. Age- and maturity-related studies demonstrate progressive increases in F0 and Pmax across developmental stages, explaining much of the inter-individual variability in youth populations. Positional and sex-based analyses reveal distinct neuromuscular profiles, with wide and attacking players displaying more velocity-oriented characteristics, and female players showing lower Pmax values. Indirect links with match-related demands, inferred from positional profiles and external load literature, suggest potential ecological relevance; however, direct evidence linking vertical F–V parameters to match-derived GPS metrics remains limited. Intervention studies show that individualized F–V-based training can modify selected vertical mechanical parameters, but improvements in sprint or match performance are not systematic. Conclusions: Vertical F–V profiling may provide descriptive information under tightly controlled conditions; however, evidence supporting its use for individualized or deficit-based training prescription in soccer remains limited and inconsistent. For this reason, vertical F–V profiling should not be interpreted as a mechanistic model of soccer performance, but rather as a context-dependent descriptive framework with restricted ecological validity.