# Evolutionary Specializations of the Human Vertebral Body and Intervertebral Disc in Relation to Bipedalism

## TL;DR

This study compares human and ape spines to show how human vertebrae and discs evolved for efficient upright walking.

## Contribution

The study identifies specific structural adaptations in human vertebrae and discs linked to bipedalism.

## Key findings

- Humans have distinct vertebral proportions and bone volume compared to apes.
- Human intervertebral discs show specialized features for axial loading and rotation.
- Differences in vascularization and lamellar organization support human bipedal adaptations.

## Abstract

It is widely accepted that modern humans display distinctive vertebral and intervertebral disc (IVD) morphologies that evolved to meet the biomechanical demands of habitual terrestrial bipedalism. This study synthesizes macro- and microstructural differences in the lumbar spine to clarify how human specializations compare with those of extant apes. The skeletal sample consisted of 240 humans, 20 chimpanzees, and 25 gorillas. The CT scan sample comprised 180 humans and eight chimpanzees. Histological analysis of the IVD was performed on 10 humans and four ape specimens. Vertebral bodies and discs were measured. Histological analyses employed hematoxylin–eosin, Von Kossa, and Van Gieson staining. Statistical analyses included ANOVA with Bonferroni-corrected t-tests or Welch’s ANOVA and Games–Howell post hoc tests. Regression analyses were performed using ordinary least-squares estimation, and differences between regression lines were assessed using ANCOVA. Humans and chimpanzees differed significantly in vertebral body proportions, bone volume fraction, IVD thickness, apophyseal ring thickness, annulus fibrosus lamellar organization, endplate and subchondral bone thickness, and vascularization at the bone–endplate interface. These results indicate substantial evolutionary modification of the human vertebral body and IVD, enhancing rotational mobility and resistance to axial loading, key functional requirements for maintaining upright posture and efficient bipedal locomotion.