# Emerging Arthropod-Borne Infections in Temperate Regions: Comparative Synthesis Across Mosquitoes, Ticks, Sandflies, and Biting Midges

## TL;DR

Arthropod-borne diseases are increasing in temperate regions due to climate and environmental changes, with different vectors showing unique transmission patterns.

## Contribution

This review compares the emergence dynamics of four arthropod vectors using a stage-based framework to highlight the need for tailored surveillance and control strategies.

## Key findings

- Each vector group (mosquitoes, ticks, sandflies, biting midges) has distinct biological traits affecting disease emergence.
- Early warning indicators and control strategies must be customized to each vector's unique ecological and biological characteristics.
- Climate and environmental changes influence vector expansion, but transmission dynamics depend on vector-specific traits.

## Abstract

A brief synopsis. In temperate regions of Europe North America and beyond arthropod-borne diseases—transmitted by mosquitoes ticks sandflies and biting midges—are becoming more common. The conditions under which these vectors establish survive winters intensify seasonally and eventually spill over to cause disease in humans and animals are changing due to climate variability land-use change and the global movement of people and animals. Each vector group however reacts to these common pressures through unique biological mechanisms: biting midges benefit from the thermal buffering of livestock housing sandflies rely on fine-scale microclimate refugia ticks spread slowly but persistently into new areas and mosquitoes can quickly amplify transmission during warm seasons. This review compares emergence dynamics across all four vector groups by synthesizing literature from 2015 to 2025 using a four-stage framework: introduction establishment amplification and spillover. The analysis reveals that rather than being applied consistently early-warning indicators surveillance tactics and control options must be customized to each vectors unique constraints. Planning for readiness and the development of integrated One Health surveillance systems that can identify and address new vector-borne threats in temperate environments are directly impacted by these findings.

Arthropod-borne diseases are increasingly reported in temperate regions, reflecting the combined effects of climate variability, environmental change, and global movement of humans and animals. This review addresses how different arthropod vectors contribute to disease emergence in these regions and aims to identify shared and vector-specific drivers of transmission. A comparative synthesis of recent literature was conducted focusing on mosquitoes, ticks, sandflies, and biting midges, using a stage-based framework encompassing introduction, establishment and overwintering, seasonal amplification, and spillover to humans or animals. The analysis shows that although climate-related factors commonly facilitate expansion, the biological traits of each vector group strongly influence persistence, transmission dynamics, and detectability. Differences in overwintering capacity, host associations, and dispersal mechanisms result in distinct emergence pathways and surveillance challenges. The findings indicate that early warning indicators and control options are highly context dependent and cannot be applied uniformly across vector groups. This narrative review concludes that effective preparedness in temperate regions requires surveillance and intervention strategies tailored to specific vectors and ecological settings.