# Immunosensors and Immunoassays to Detect Francisella tularensis and Diagnose Tularemia

## TL;DR

This paper reviews current and emerging immunoassays and biosensors for detecting the dangerous bacterium Francisella tularensis, which causes tularemia.

## Contribution

The paper highlights the transition from traditional methods to advanced biosensors for safer and faster detection of Francisella tularensis.

## Key findings

- High-pressure homogenization and sonication are effective for antigen preparation.
- Electrochemiluminescence and Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering biosensors are promising for field-ready detection.
- Nanomaterials and microfluidics enhance the sensitivity and practicality of immunoassays.

## Abstract

Francisella tularensis, the causative agent of tularemia, is a highly infectious Category A biothreat agent characterized by an exceptionally low infectious dose and diverse transmission routes. Due to the pathogen’s fastidious growth requirements and the high risk of laboratory-acquired infections, traditional cultivation methods are often protracted and hazardous. Consequently, the development of rapid and sensitive diagnostic tools is paramount. This manuscript provides a comprehensive overview of the current landscape of immunoassays, with a specific focus on the evolution from standard laboratory techniques to advanced biosensors. We detail the critical phases of antigen preparation, including high-pressure homogenization and sonication, and the generation of high-affinity polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies. Furthermore, we evaluate the implementation of novel biosensor-like devices, such as electrochemiluminescence and Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering platforms, designed for point-of-care and field-ready scenarios. By synthesizing recent advancements in nanomaterial-enhanced recognition and microfluidic integration, this review emphasizes the pivotal role of these technologies in achieving early detection and mitigating the impact of both natural outbreaks and potential deliberate misuse of F. tularensis.