# Non-medical use of exogenous testosterone and anabolic–androgenic substances in young men: health, psychological, and fertility consequences

## TL;DR

Young men using testosterone and steroids for muscle gain face serious health risks, including fertility issues and hormonal imbalances.

## Contribution

This review provides a comprehensive overview of the health, psychological, and fertility consequences of non-medical testosterone and steroid use in young men.

## Key findings

- Non-medical use of testosterone and AAS suppresses the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis and impairs spermatogenesis.
- AAS use is linked to long-term endocrine effects and fertility disturbances.
- Psychological factors like muscle dysmorphia and social pressure contribute to AAS use and associated risks.

## Abstract

The non-medical use of exogenous testosterone and other anabolic–androgenic steroids (AAS) has increased substantially in recent years, particularly among young men engaged in recreational strength training. Although often perceived as a means of enhancing muscle mass and physical performance, this practice represents a growing public-health concern due to its wide-ranging endocrine, reproductive, and multisystem adverse effects. This narrative review synthesizes current international evidence on the non-medical use of testosterone and AAS in non-professional athletic settings, with a primary focus on endocrine disruption and reproductive health. The review outlines the classification of commonly used anabolic–androgenic compounds, discusses their pharmacological mechanisms of action, and integrates clinical, experimental, and epidemiological data on associated adverse outcomes. Particular attention is given to suppression of the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis, impaired spermatogenesis, fertility disturbances, and the potential for long-term or persistent endocrine sequelae. In addition, psychological and behavioural factors contributing to AAS use—including muscle dysmorphia, social pressure, and body-image concerns—are discussed as important modulators of risk. The review also addresses current clinical approaches to the management of AAS-related complications, including strategies aimed at hormonal recovery and restoration of reproductive function. By presenting a comprehensive, mechanistic, and clinically oriented overview, this article highlights the need for increased awareness among clinicians and underscores priorities for future research and preventive interventions in endocrine and reproductive health.