# Following Camels Between Bone and Culture: Camel–Human Interactions in China from the Neolithic to the Late Imperial Period

## TL;DR

This study explores how camels interacted with humans in China from ancient times to the late imperial period, revealing their roles in transport, culture, and trade.

## Contribution

The study integrates camel osteological data with archaeological and historical evidence to reveal long-term patterns of human–camel interactions in China.

## Key findings

- Camels were used for transport, labor, consumption, and funerary practices in northern arid regions.
- Camels in Central China had limited practical use but gained cultural significance through exchange networks.
- Osteological remains show sustained economic use of camels in northern regions but sparse records in Central China.

## Abstract

Bactrian camels were key agents of long-distance interaction in China. Previous studies on camel-human dynamics have relied mainly on iconographic and textual data. This study integrates osteological material with broader archaeological and historical evidence to better understand long-term patterns of human–camel relationships. Results reveal diverse forms of interactions, including transport, labor, consumption, funerary practices, and craft production. Camel skeletal evidence consistently clusters in northern arid regions, where environmental conditions supported sustained economic use, whereas in Central China the record remains sparse despite increasing cultural representations. This distribution suggests limited practical integration in the everyday life of the Central Plains, with camels instead acquiring cultural significance through their role in wider exchange networks. These findings demonstrate how social demand and environmental conditions shaped camel use, offering new insight into early mobility, exchange and socio-cultural dynamics in China.

Bactrian camels (Camelus bactrianus) have long been recognized in China as key agents of long-distance connectivity, based largely on iconographic and textual evidence, while osteological data have rarely been incorporated into discussion. Because these data have seldom been examined within a unified analytical framework, current knowledge of the development and shifting patterns of camel–human relationships remains fragmentary. To address this gap, the present study provides a detailed analysis of available camel osteological material from archaeological contexts in northern China and integrates it with broader archaeological and historical evidence. Our results identify diverse forms of interaction across time and space, including camel exploitation for transport and labor, consumption, funerary practices, and craft production. Spatiotemporal patterns indicate a persistent concentration of osteological remains in China’s northern frontier zones, whereas the record remains sporadic in central regions despite increasing camel representations in material culture and texts. This enduring distribution reflects ecological suitability and sustained economic integration in arid zones. The absence of such conditions in Central China meant that camels were never fully incorporated into local everyday life; instead, they primarily operated within imperial logistical and political systems and came to be culturally important through their role in broader exchange networks.