# Probabilistic dietary exposure assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and its associated disease burden in Singapore

## TL;DR

This study assesses dietary exposure to PAHs in Singapore and estimates the associated cancer risk and disease burden.

## Contribution

The study introduces a probabilistic dietary exposure assessment of PAHs and estimates associated disease burden in Singapore.

## Key findings

- PAH levels are higher in nuts, sauces, fruiting vegetables, and fungi/seaweed.
- Stir-frying increases PAH levels in fish and seafood compared to boiling or steaming.
- Estimated lifetime cancer risk from dietary PAHs ranges from 4.63 × 10− 5 to 5.17 × 10− 3.

## Abstract

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are process contaminants with dietary exposure as a key route into the human body. Findings from the Singapore Total Diet Study revealed that higher levels of PAHs were found in food categories such as nuts and seeds, sauces and condiments, fruiting vegetables as well as fungi and seaweed. The choice of cooking method may influence the PAH levels in food such as fish and seafood products where stir-frying was associated with higher PAHs levels than boiling and steaming. Monte Carlo simulation was applied in the PAHs probabilistic exposure assessment using optimistic and pessimistic model scenarios. Lifetime cancer risk due to total dietary exposure to PAHs was estimated to be between 4.63 × 10− 5 and 5.17 × 10− 3. Attributable Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) for the Singapore population were estimated to be between 2.36 × 10− 1 and 92.5 years under the optimistic and pessimistic model scenarios respectively. These values reflect a relatively low burden of disease attributable to dietary PAHs exposure for consumers in Singapore and elsewhere. Further research and monitoring, along with policy considerations, will be crucial for reducing dietary exposure to PAHs and safeguarding consumer health.

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-026-39906-5.