# A comparison of single-domain and multidomain executive functions cognitive training for enhancing cognition and well-being in older adults

## TL;DR

This study compares single-domain and multidomain cognitive training in older adults, finding that multidomain training may better improve cognition and self-perceived cognitive abilities.

## Contribution

The study introduces a direct comparison of single-domain and multidomain cognitive training using Bayesian analyses to assess transfer effects and subjective well-being.

## Key findings

- Multidomain EF training showed substantial evidence for far-transfer to prospective memory.
- Neither training group showed far-transfer to fluid intelligence.
- Both training groups improved participants' subjective perception of cognitive abilities.

## Abstract

This study investigated the efficacy of single-domain (working memory; WM) and multidomain core executive functions (EFs; cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, WM) cognitive training programs in enhancing cognitive performance (measured objectively and subjectively) and well-being. Participants comprised 66 healthy older adults (Mage = 69.58, SD = 7.04) who were assigned to a 4-week single-domain WM, multidomain EF, or active control program. Bayesian analyses yielded ambiguous evidence regarding near-transfer to global executive functioning for both training groups. However, findings revealed substantial evidence for training-related far-transfer (prospective memory) for the multidomain EF group and mixed evidence for the single-domain WM group. No far-transfer was observed for fluid intelligence in either training group. Post-test performance for the multidomain EF group was comparable to that of an untrained young adult sample (Mage = 22.42, SD = 5.14) on some trained and near-transfer executive functioning measures (n-back, mixing costs, global EF accuracy), though evidence for comparable performance on other outcomes was ambiguous. The single-domain WM group was comparable to young adults on 1-back and 2-back levels of the trained WM updating measure (n-back). Neither group demonstrated comparable performance to young adults on the far-transfer task (Virtual Week). Both multidomain and single-domain programs, but not the control, elevated participants’ subjective perceptions of their own cognitive abilities (particularly attention and memory); however, improvements in well-being were observed across all groups. These findings provide initial support for multidomain training (targeting core EFs) over single-domain cognitive training in promoting transfer to objective and subjective measures of cognition. However, considering the ambiguous evidence across numerous outcomes, further research applying Bayesian analyses is warranted to evaluate the strength of evidence regarding cognitive training-related changes and provide clearer insight into the potential that cognitive training might offer.

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00426-026-02249-x.