# From tests to truth: A misclassification-aware machine learning framework for estimating brucellosis seroprevalence in wild canids

## TL;DR

Wild canids show modest but widespread exposure to Brucella bacteria, but confirmed infections are rare, with significant regional gaps in surveillance.

## Contribution

A misclassification-aware machine learning framework is introduced to correct for diagnostic test imperfections in estimating Brucella seroprevalence in wild canids.

## Key findings

- Global misclassification-adjusted seroprevalence in wild canids is 8.2%.
- Confirmed active infection based on PCR or culture is rare at 3.9%.
- Exposure levels vary regionally, with higher rates in South America and lower in Europe and North America.

## Abstract

Brucellosis is an important zoonotic disease affecting humans, livestock, and wildlife, yet prevalence estimates in wild species are often underestimated due to limited attention to surveillance, as well as insufficient and biased sampling. To clarify exposure patterns in wild canids, we searched PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, SciELO, and Google Scholar (1962–2025) for primary prevalence studies of Brucella species (spp.) in free-ranging canids. Serological data were analyzed using a misclassification-aware, multi-assay model that corrects for imperfect test sensitivity and specificity. Confirmatory polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and culture results were considered separately from serological data, as each offers a different perspective on disease status. Across 48 wild serology populations (n = 3,925 animals), the global misclassification-adjusted true seroprevalence was 8.2% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 5.1–11.3%). Confirmed active infection, based on PCR or culture, was uncommon (3.9%; 95% CI: 3.0–5.1%). Exposure levels varied across continents, with higher estimates in South America (approximately 18%) and lower levels in Europe (approximately 0.8%) and North America (approximately 4.1%). Data from Africa were limited, and Asian estimates were based on sparse wild samples, leading to wide uncertainty. Seroprevalence was consistently influenced by assay type, host species, and region. Overall, wild canids exhibit modest but widespread serological exposure to Brucella spp., whereas confirmed active infection remains rare. Because evidence quality and diagnostic rigor varied considerably across regions, especially in Africa and parts of Asia, results from these areas should be interpreted with caution. By correcting for imperfect tests and explicitly accounting for study heterogeneity, this framework provides more reliable and transparent prevalence estimates and highlights geographic gaps where improved, targeted One Health surveillance is most urgently needed.

Brucellosis is a bacterial disease that affects livestock, wildlife, and people. While surveillance usually focuses on domestic animals, far less is known about infection in wild carnivores such as wolves, foxes, and jackals, even though these species often live near farms and may signal when Brucella is present in the environment. Research on wild canids is difficult to compare because studies use many different diagnostic tests, some of which can give false-positive or false-negative results. We reviewed all available studies of Brucella in wild canids worldwide and combined the data using a modeling approach that adjusts for imperfect diagnostic accuracy. We found that exposure is widespread but unevenly documented, with major gaps in Africa and much of Asia. After accounting for test performance, wild canids showed modest levels of exposure overall, and confirmed infections were rare. Studies using older or less reliable tests tended to report inflated prevalence. By correcting for diagnostic limitations, our study provides more reliable estimates and highlights where improved wildlife surveillance is most needed to support One Health monitoring.