# Cross-cultural study of religiosity, gratitude, and happiness: self-esteem as a mediator among Malaysian and Indonesian adults

## TL;DR

This study explores how religiosity, gratitude, and self-esteem influence happiness in Malaysian and Indonesian adults, revealing cultural differences in these relationships.

## Contribution

The study identifies self-esteem as a mediator and highlights cross-cultural differences in the psychological pathways to happiness in collectivist societies.

## Key findings

- Religiosity, gratitude, and self-esteem significantly predict happiness in both Malaysian and Indonesian adults.
- Self-esteem partially mediates the relationship between religiosity, gratitude, and happiness.
- Cultural differences were found in how religiosity and gratitude influence happiness through self-esteem in Malaysia and Indonesia.

## Abstract

Happiness is a central goal of human life and a core focus of positive psychology, yet its predictors and pathways often vary across different cultural contexts. Religiosity, gratitude, and self-esteem have each been linked to happiness. However, little is known about how these constructs interact in collectivist societies, such as Malaysia and Indonesia. This study examines cross-cultural differences in happiness by investigating how religiosity and gratitude predict happiness, with self-esteem as a mediator, among Malaysian and Indonesian adults.

A total of 739 adults (40.6% Malaysian and 59.4% Indonesian; age 18–72 years) were selected using a voluntary sampling method. Data were collected using a set of questionnaire-based surveys through a cross-sectional study and then analysed using structural equation modelling (SEM).

Religiosity, gratitude, and self-esteem significantly predicted the happiness of Malaysian and Indonesian adults. Self-esteem partially mediated the association between religiosity, gratitude, and happiness. Multigroup analysis revealed cultural differences in the role of religiosity, gratitude, and self-esteem in the two countries. Among Indonesian adults, religiosity, gratitude, and self-esteem each showed a significant direct association with happiness. In contrast, in the Malaysian context, religiosity and gratitude contributed more strongly to self-esteem, which in turn predicted happiness.

This study highlights both shared and culture-specific pathways to happiness in Malaysia and Indonesia. Findings emphasise the role of cultural context in shaping psychological mechanisms of happiness and suggest that interventions may be more effective when tailored to the distinct ways religiosity and gratitude operate across societies.