# Rabies and Pinnipeds Reviewed: Premonitions, Perturbations, and Projections?

## TL;DR

A rabies outbreak in South African seals raises concerns about potential spread to Antarctica and highlights the need for better surveillance in marine mammals.

## Contribution

The paper reviews rabies in pinnipeds, identifies a new outbreak in seals, and emphasizes the need for proactive surveillance in the Southern Ocean.

## Key findings

- A rabies outbreak in South African Cape fur seals is linked to spillover from rabid jackals.
- More than 80 seal cases have been documented, with potential spread to Namibia and Angola.
- Antarctica's rabies-free status is threatened due to lack of surveillance in pinnipeds.

## Abstract

Rabies is a deadly viral disease that can infect all mammals. However, despite obvious host breadth, some major groups are lacking in rudimentary surveillance. For example, among marine mammals, throughout the 20th century, only a single rabies case was reported in a seal from Norway. Thereafter, a unique rabies outbreak was detected in South African Cape fur seals during 2024, believed to be associated with viral introduction via rabid jackals. A subsequent viral host shift and seal-to-seal transmission appears likely. Besides local public health concerns to residents and coastal tourists, the larger implications include involvement of other seal species elsewhere and potential spread throughout the Southern Ocean, threatening the conservation biology of wildlife in Antarctica, the only supposedly ‘rabies-free’ continent. Proactive surveillance is necessary to develop relevant management plans before broader disease emergence occurs.

Rabies is an acute, progressive, viral encephalitis. Warm-blooded vertebrates are susceptible. Major reservoirs reside in the Chiroptera and Carnivora. Among the latter, representatives include dogs, ferret badgers, foxes, jackals, mongooses, raccoons, and skunks. Within the Carnivora, pinnipeds represent a diverse group of >30 extant species. These marine mammals range from the Arctic to Antarctica, but there is no review about rabies in this group. Apparently, only a single 1980 case of rabies occurred from Svalbard in a ringed seal (Phoca hispida). However, in 2024, incidental cases appeared within South African Cape fur seals (Arctocephalus pusillus). Retrospective testing of archival material identified suspect cases dating back to 2022. Currently, more than 80 cases have been documented in seals. Moreover, a new 2025 focus appeared in Namibia and cases in Angola are predictable. Viral characterization supports spillover infection via rabid black-backed jackals (Lupulella mesomelas). A host shift appears likely, with ongoing seal intraspecific transmission. Given the unique nature of this epizootic, implications for the southern hemisphere abound. Unfortunately, comprehensive data are lacking on pinniped specimens examined outside of southern Africa. For example, although Antarctica is considered ‘rabies-free’, minimal international standards for support are unmet. No routine laboratory-based surveillance occurs. This enzootic rabies focus among seals in southern Africa presents unique challenges for the region and a rare opportunity for considering broader surveillance. Besides targeted parenteral vaccination of fur seals, local engagement involves vagrant species, including elephant (Mirounga leonina) and leopard seals (Hydrurga leptonyx). The void of regional pinniped surveillance, especially encompassing the Southern Ocean would require considerable proactive local resolution and much wider collaboration regarding future concerns to both public health and conservation biology.