# The Genus Apis in a Changing World: Distribution, Conservation, Climate, and Anthropogenic Stressors

## TL;DR

This paper reviews how human activities and environmental changes are threatening bee species in the genus Apis, which are crucial for pollination and ecosystem health.

## Contribution

The paper provides a comprehensive synthesis of Apis species' biology, distribution, and the anthropogenic stressors impacting their survival.

## Key findings

- Anthropogenic factors like climate change and habitat loss are significantly affecting Apis populations.
- Mismanagement of domesticated colonies increases competition with wild bees and facilitates disease spillover.
- Understanding Apis species' adaptations and origins is crucial for developing conservation strategies.

## Abstract

Bees of the genus Apis represent a key taxonomic group within Apoidea, comprising species that occupy a wide range of ecological niches and exhibit distinct behavioural, physiological and colony-level traits. Their role as pollinators makes them fundamental for the reproductive success of numerous angiosperms in natural and agricultural ecosystems. In recent decades, however, Apis species have been increasingly exposed to different pressures. Threats due to human activities, such as habitat fragmentation, land use intensification, climate change, pollution, and the global movement of managed colonies, have altered their population dynamics and facilitated the spread of parasites and pathogens. Moreover, the mismanagement of domesticated colonies may intensify competition with wild bees, contributing to the spillover of diseases. This review synthesises the current knowledge on the distribution and origin of Apis species, their behaviours, and the adaptations that have enabled them to survive in diverse environments. It further analyses how human activities are disrupting this balance and the potential consequences for ecosystems and humans. Understanding these dynamics is essential for developing effective strategies to protect bees and ensure a sustainable future.

(1) Background: Bees of the genus Apis play a fundamental role in ecosystems thanks to their pollination activities and their long evolutionary history. This has resulted in species diversifying and spreading across Asia, Africa, and Europe. This review contextualises the genus within biogeographic and evolutionary frameworks, emphasising the importance of understanding the origins, adaptations, distribution and differences between species. (2) Methods: Recent studies on the biology, taxonomy and ecology of Apis species were analysed, including research on social behaviour, communication, genetics, morphology and environmental adaptations, as well as contributions using modern evolutionary and phylogeographic analytical methods. (3) Results: The gathered evidence shows that anthropogenic factors, including climate change, habitat loss, intensive agriculture, pollutants, competition with other bees and the spread of parasites and pathogens, significantly affect the stability of Apis populations and increase the vulnerability of wild species. (4) Conclusions: This review emphasises the importance of integrating ecological, genetic and management knowledge to develop effective conservation strategies that aim to reduce the impact of human activities and preserve the resilience of Apis species and the vital ecosystem services they provide.