# Molecular and Environmental Elucidation of Heavy Metal Transfer in Tilia spp.: From Soil Systems to Herbal Infusions Across Urban–Forest Gradients

## TL;DR

This study examines how heavy metals move from soil to linden plants and into herbal infusions, finding that linden tea is safe to consume and reflects environmental metal levels.

## Contribution

The study provides a detailed analysis of heavy metal transfer in Tilia spp. across urban–forest gradients and evaluates their presence in herbal infusions.

## Key findings

- Metal loads in Tilia spp. were significantly higher in urban areas compared to forest sites.
- Mn, Al, Pb, and Cd were most extractable into infusions, but all exposure levels remained below toxicological limits.
- Tilia infusions are safe for consumption and serve as reliable bioindicators of environmental metal deposition.

## Abstract

Understanding the pathways through which heavy metals accumulate in medicinal plants and enter herbal infusions is essential for linking environmental quality with human exposure. This study investigated multi-matrix metal transfer in Tilia spp. along an urban–forest gradient by quantifying twelve elements (Pb, Cd, Zn, Cu, Ni, Cr, Mn, Co, As, Hg, Al, and V) in soil, bark, leaves, flowers, and corresponding infusions using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry and by estimating daily intake for different age groups based on EFSA default body weights and two consumption scenarios (150 and 400 mL day−1). The results revealed clear spatial patterns, with significantly higher metal loads in urban sites and a consistent transfer from environmental compartments to plant tissues and infusions. Mn, Al, Pb, and Cd exhibited the highest extractability, leading to elevated estimated daily intakes in young children, identified as the most vulnerable group due to their lower body mass. However, all exposure values remained below EFSA and JECFA toxicological reference limits, while As and Hg were undetectable in all infusions. These findings indicate that Tilia infusions contribute minimally to overall dietary metal exposure and confirm Tilia spp. as reliable bioindicators of soil- and airborne metal deposition, supporting the safe consumption of linden tea under realistic intake conditions.