Microplastics in Sediments Originating from Abandoned, Lost or Discarded Fishing Gear (ALDFG) in Coastal Areas of the Valencian Community

TL;DR

This study shows that abandoned fishing nets in coastal Spain release microplastics into nearby sediments, highlighting the need for better waste management to protect marine ecosystems.

Contribution

The study establishes a direct link between abandoned fishing gear and microplastic accumulation in rocky coastal sediments, addressing a gap in current research.

Findings

Sediments near abandoned fishing nets had significantly higher microplastic concentrations.

Many microplastics matched materials used in modern fishing nets, indicating active degradation.

The study emphasizes the role of ALDFG as a persistent source of marine plastic pollution.

Abstract

Fishing nets that are abandoned or lost at sea gradually break into increasingly small plastic particles, which can accumulate in marine sediments and pose risks to wildlife and human health. This study examined whether such nets act as a direct source of these particles in two coastal areas of eastern Spain. Sediment samples were collected from sites where abandoned nets were present and compared with nearby sites without visible human disturbance. The results showed that sediments close to the nets contained substantially higher amounts of small plastic particles. Many of these particles were composed of the same materials used to manufacture modern fishing nets, indicating that the nets were actively degrading and releasing plastics into the environment. These findings demonstrate that abandoned fishing gear can serve as a persistent point source of plastic contamination on the seafloor. By identifying a clear link between lost nets and increased plastic levels in sediments, this study underscores the importance of timely removal of discarded gear, improved waste management, and preventive actions to reduce marine pollution. Such measures are essential to protect coastal ecosystems, sustain fisheries, and reduce potential risks for human communities that depend on healthy marine environments.

The increasing presence of abandoned, lost, or discarded fishing gear (ALDFG) on the seafloor is a major source of microplastics (MPs) pollution in coastal ecosystems. This study assessed the concentration, morphology, and chemical composition of MPs in surface sediments collected from Alicante and Benidorm, in the Valencian Community, eastern coast of Spain, Mediterranean Sea. Impacted sites with fishing nets were compared to control sites without nets. Two analytical techniques were used for polymer identification, depending on particle size: micro-Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (µFTIR) and Attenuated Total Reflectance Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR-ATR). The results showed significantly higher MPs concentrations in sites affected by ALDFG. The findings highlight a clear link between the presence of fishing nets and MPs accumulation in sediments. This underlines the urgent need for mitigation strategies and recovery of discarded fishing gear. This study addresses a gap in the literature regarding MPs contamination on rocky coastal substrates and calls for further research to assess the long-term ecotoxicological impacts on marine ecosystems.

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1. Introduction

In recent years, anthropogenic activities have increasingly altered aquatic and marine environments, exerting multiple pressures on ecosystem structure and functioning [1]. These pressures have resulted in profound alterations in material fluxes and pollutant accumulation in marine environments [1]. Among these pressures, abandoned, lost, or otherwise discarded fishing gear (ALDFG) has emerged as a global environmental issue, with severe impacts on marine organisms and ecosystems and significant ecological and socioeconomic consequences [2,3,4,5]. Ghost fishing gear, particularly nets, represents a major source of secondary marine microplastics (MPs) and is known to release considerable amounts of toxic chemical compounds into the environment [6]. Despite growing awareness of plastic pollution, only approximately 20% of plastic waste is recycled, while the remaining 80% accumulates in terrestrial, riverine, and marine systems [7]. Understanding the sources and impacts of ALDFG is therefore essential not only for marine ecosystem conservation but also for fisheries management and the protection of human livelihoods [1].

Set nets (e.g., trammel and gillnets) and trawl nets are among the fishing gears most frequently lost or discarded at sea, where they continue to fish passively as “ghost nets”. Differences in exposure time and catch efficiency among gear types pose substantial challenges in assessing the overall impacts of ALDFG [8]. These persistent impacts affect both target and non-target species, leading to environmental degradation and economic losses, and ultimately undermining fisheries sustainability and human well-being in terms of food security and livelihoods [9].

Historically, fishing nets were made of biodegradable natural fibers such as hemp, sisal, cotton, flax, and coconut fibers [10], which degraded rapidly in the environment [6,11]. Despite their environmental benefits, their high biodegradability and short lifespan in water led to their replacement with synthetic nets made from polymers like polyamide and nylon. These materials increased fishing efficiency but are non-biodegradable, durable, and resistant, making them persistent in the ocean. This increased the average lifespan, size, and complexity of modern fishing nets [11,12,13,14]. MPs derived from ghost nets have been documented in both abiotic (sediments and water column) and biotic (invertebrates, fish, seabirds, and marine mammals) compartments of the ecosystem [15].

Several of these polymers are commonly reported as representative components in marine plastic pollution [16,17,18,19]. For instance, atactic polystyrene is widely used in various plastic products, including protective packaging, containers, lids, bottles, trays, cups, and disposable cutlery. Additionally, polyethylene and polyesters such as terephthalate (PET) and isophthalate are universally applied in numerous industrial and commercial sectors. Polyester may also originate from synthetic fibers used in the textile and clothing industry, which can eventually enter aquatic environments [19].

In 2021, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) estimated that about 640,000 tons of fishing gear are abandoned in the ocean every year. Ghost nets account for 10% of the plastic debris volume in the ocean (LIFE IP INTEMARES, 2023). The European Union estimates that 20% of fishing gear used in Europe is lost in the Mediterranean Sea, about 11,000 tons (LIFE IP INTEMARES, 2023). Spain ranks third among twelve Mediterranean countries for the number of ghost nets reported [20].

Lost gear can reduce fish stocks [21], impact non-target species [22], and promote the spread of invasive species and harmful algae [23]. ALDFG is also a major component of marine and seafloor litter [24]. Over time, these gears degrade into MPs (<5 mm) or nanoplastics, often very slowly—degradation may take centuries [11,19]. ALDFG is made of synthetic polymers, produced by polymerizing petroleum-based monomers to form lightweight, durable plastics [25]. In 2019, global plastic production reached nearly 370 million tons, with Europe producing 58 million tons [26]. Plastic is the fastest-growing component of urban waste and accounts for 60–80% of marine debris [27].

Depending on chemical composition, plastic can sink to the seafloor (70%) or remain suspended in the water column [28,29]. Its hydrophobicity, small size, and chemical stability facilitate interactions with environmental pollutants such as antibiotics and heavy metals, enhancing ecotoxicological effects [19].

MPs are categorized as: primary, intentionally manufactured < 5 mm, including beauty products with scrubbing properties or medical products, fibers detached during laundry, and other household waste [30]; and secondary, derived from the breakdown of larger plastics, including fishing nets, or primary MPs [19,31]. Macroplastics degrade into microplastics and nanoplastics via photolysis, photo-oxidation, thermo-oxidation, biodegradation, and mechanical abrasion [23,32]. These fragments can be ingested by various marine organisms, from zooplankton to large pelagic predators [33,34], and can adhere to aquatic plants, animals, and various microbes that can colonize them, forming microfilms, increasing the number and local concentration of pathogenic microorganisms in the water system [35].

Plastic debris can settle on the seafloor, persisting for decades [24,36], or fragment into MPs [12]. Even low-density polymers can sink due to biofouling and debris accumulation [37], turning seabeds into plastic sinks [38].

According to [33], marine plastic debris is classified into: macroplastics (>20 mm): e.g., bottles and packaging; mesoplastics (5–20 mm): e.g., plastic pellets; MPs (<5 mm): from degradation of larger plastics; and nanoplastics (0.2–2 mm): hard to detect and remove, but highly ecotoxic.

MPs are also categorized by shape and size [25]: fragments: jagged, hard particles; fibers/lines: thin and elongated; pellets: rounded or spherical; films: thin plastic sheets; and foam: light, sponge-like plastic.

Ocean currents and plastic input create large accumulation zones (garbage patches), altering habitats, carrying pollutants, and posing threats through entanglement or ingestion [28,29,39]. Biomagnification involves the transfer of MPs and nanoplastics across trophic levels, potentially affecting marine food webs and human health.

This study quantified MPs concentrations in samples collected during underwater surveys by stereomicroscopic visual inspection and polymer identification using µF-TIR/ATR-FTIR. It assesses the environmental impact of ALDFG, investigating whether ALDFG releases MPs via physical, chemical, or biological degradation and the extent to which such releases contribute to MPs accumulation in sediments and the broader marine environment.

2. Materials and Methods

In this study, to assess the potential release and accumulation of MPs, sediment samples were collected and analyzed from two coastal sites along the Valencian Community, located on the eastern coast of Spain, in the Mediterranean Sea, during the summer of 2023 (Figure 1).

At the Alicante site, a fishing net identified as a trammel net was located at a depth of 23 to 26.5 m. Trammel nets consist of three panels: two outer layers with large mesh sizes and an inner panel with a smaller mesh. When fish pass through the outer mesh, they become trapped in the inner layer, making this gear type particularly effective.

At the Benidorm site, a gillnet was found at a depth of 29.5 m. Gillnets are composed of a single panel with a specific mesh size designed for size-selective catch, based on the target species. The net is set vertically in the water column, so that fish become entangled by the gills when attempting to pass through.

2.1. Study Area and Sampling

Sediment samples were collected by scuba diving in 2023, with sampling carried out in August 2023 at Alicante and in May 2023 at Benidorm.

In the Alicante area, the wave regime is predominantly moderate, with calm to slight sea conditions prevailing for most of the year. The area is characterized by a relatively stable marine environment, typical of urbanized Mediterranean coasts; however, it is sensitive to the effects of climate change, particularly to increases in sea surface temperature and mean sea level rise [40].

Similarly, in the Benidorm area, coastal currents are generally weak and are primarily driven by meteorological forcing, particularly the influence of local and synoptic-scale winds. Surface circulation tends to develop parallel to the coastline [41]. The wave climate is moderate: for most of the year, sea conditions are calm to slight, with wave heights generally below 1 m [40].

Sampling was conducted prior to the retrieval of the fishing nets, using a quantitative approach, at four stations. Each of the two stations impacted by ALDFG (referred to as “with nets”) was paired with a respective control station without apparent anthropogenic influence (Table 1).

During underwater activities, for each site (with nets and control), sediment samples were collected (800 g = 1 kg wet weight, WW per sample). Anti-contamination protocols were implemented throughout all experimental procedures. Standard precautions were adopted during both field sampling and laboratory processing to minimize airborne and procedural contamination. These included the use of metal and glass equipment whenever possible, thorough rinsing of tools with filtered distilled water, avoidance of synthetic clothing during laboratory work, latex gloves, and particulate-filtering masks.

Sampling was carried out using a stainless-steel scoop, and the collected samples were weighed and stored in dedicated bags, kept at 4 °C until analysis. These procedures were conducted following the methodologies described by Vitale et al. (2023) [19] and Fan et al. (2021) [18].

Sediment samples were processed and aggregated at the station level, and no independent sediment replicates were available for statistical inference. As a result, true replication was limited, and statistical analyses were restricted to contingency-based and proportional approaches. This limitation is acknowledged and considered in the interpretation of the results.

All samples were processed and analyzed at the Food and Environmental Safety Laboratory (SAMA-UV) of the Desertification Research Center (CIDE), University of Valencia, Spain.

2.2. Lyophilization and Sieving of Samples

After the analytical procedures, samples were stored at −20 °C in the laboratory. They were then lyophilized at −65 °C for 72 h under vacuum conditions ranging from 1 to 4 mTorr in order to remove water and preserve the samples, following the protocol described in [42].

The lyophilization process was performed using a Sentry 2.0 freeze dryer (VirTis SP Scientific, Gardiner, NY, USA). After freeze-drying, samples were sieved using a 2 mm mesh sieve.

2.3. Extraction

This procedure was carried out following the methodology described by Tsang et al. (2017) [43] and Vitale et al. (2023) [19]. A total of 400 mL of saturated NaCl solution was added using two aliquots of 100 g (dry weight). Samples were stirred for 1.5 min in a glass flask containing concentrated NaCl solution (CS, 120 g/L) to reach a final volume of 1 L and then allowed to settle for 1 h [19].

To reduce interference with plastic identification, biogenic material present in the samples was oxidized by adding 30% hydrogen peroxide (H_2_O_2_). After agitation, the entire suspension was left to settle for 24 h. The resulting supernatant, containing floating particles extracted from the samples, was filtered through a 500 µm stainless-steel mesh sieve [19].

This procedure was repeated three times consecutively. The three extracted fractions were then pooled, resuspended in Milli-Q water, and filtered through a 0.6 µm nominal pore size glass fiber filter paper (ADVANTEC, Tokyo, Japan) to retain MPs.

2.4. Identification

One of the most commonly used methodologies for the identification and quantification of plastic particles is visual observation, which requires careful selection [44] to differentiate plastic components from organic matter that may not have been completely removed during the digestion phase—such as algal residues, shell fragments, etc. This observation was performed using a stereomicroscope (model EZ4; Leica AG, Wetzlar, Germany) and a digital camera (Canon G15; Canon Inc., Tokyo, Japan).

The chemical composition of the MPs was determined using (µFTIR/ATR-FTIR) for polymer identification (FTIR microscope Nicolet iN10 MX; Thermo Fisher Scientific, Madison, WI, USA) [19].

MPs polymer extraction was carried out through an initial sieving process across multiple mesh sizes (<50 µm; >150 µm; >250 µm; and >500 µm), followed by density separation via flotation in a saline solution and subsequent filtration. Depending on the polymer size, different techniques were applied for characterization and identification.

For larger plastic particles (>500 µm), including remnants of fishing nets, morphological characterization was conducted using optical microscopy (Nicolet iN10 MX FTIR Microscope; Thermo Fisher Scientific, Madison, WI, USA), while chemical composition was determined through FT-IR/ATR analysis. Since this technique does not allow direct classification by size, Adobe Photoshop CC 2019 software was used for particle measurement.

From a morphological perspective, MPs particles were classified according to shape, color, surface texture, and consistency, following the criteria proposed in [45]. Categories included fragments, corresponding to rigid plastics; filaments and filament-like particles, likely derived from fishing nets and lines; and fibers or fiber-like materials, associated with textiles or clothing. A wide range of colors was observed, from transparent and white tones to bright colors such as orange, red, pink, green, and black [19].

FT-IR/ATR allows for non-destructive characterization of solid, liquid, and semi-solid samples. It is based on the selective absorption of specific wavelengths by molecular bonds, producing a characteristic IR spectrum that provides detailed information on the chemical composition of the analyzed materials.

For smaller plastic components (<500 µm), identification was conducted using µFTIR spectroscopy to detect and semi-quantify MPs polymers (polymer count/kg), in terms of both particle size and chemical composition [18].

MPs were classified into four size categories (<50 µm, 50–500 µm, 500 µm–2 mm, and 2–5 mm) and divided into morphological categories: fragments, fibers, and filaments (Table S1).

2.5. Statistical Analysis

Statistical analyses were conducted using exclusively the data reported in the Supplementary Material (Tables S2–S9).

Due to the aggregation of sediment samples by sampling station and the absence of independent replicates, classical parametric inferential statistics (e.g., t-tests, ANOVA, and regression models) were not applicable. Statistical analyses, therefore, focused on contingency-based and proportional approaches suitable for count and compositional data.

Differences in the morphological composition of MPs between control and net-impacted sediments were assessed using chi-square tests of independence applied to contingency tables constructed from proportional data reported in Tables S8 and S9.

Differences in MPs size distribution between control and net-impacted sediments were evaluated using chi-square tests of independence applied to contingency tables constructed from size-class frequency data reported in Tables S2–S7.

Differences in polymer composition between control and net-impacted sediments were assessed using contingency-based analyses applied to polymer-specific particle counts obtained by FT-IR and ATR-FTIR spectroscopy and reported in Tables S2–S7. Chi-square tests of independence were applied when expected frequencies were sufficient, while Fisher’s exact tests were used when expected cell frequencies were lower than five.

Effect sizes were evaluated by calculating percentage differences and fold-change ratios between control and net-impacted sediments for morphological categories, size classes, and polymer types, using proportional data reported in Tables S2–S9. Effect size analyses were used to support the interpretation of contingency-based statistical tests and to quantify the magnitude of observed differences.

All statistical analyses were conducted at the sampling-station level and were interpreted conservatively, with emphasis placed on consistent patterns observed across study areas rather than on formal hypothesis testing alone.

3. Results

Abundance, Shape, and Size of Microplastics

The analysis conducted at the coastal sites of Alicante and Benidorm revealed a marked difference in both the concentration and composition of MPs between the stations impacted by ALDFG and the control sites. The number of MPs varied depending on the sampling station, particle size, and morphological category, in accordance with the analytical method used (FT-IR/ATR or µFTIR).

The highest concentration of MPs was recorded at the “Alicante with nets” station, reaching 2100 MP/kg dry sediment. This was followed by the “Alicante control” station, with 1190 MP/kg dry sediment. The “Benidorm with nets” station showed a concentration of 1380 MP/kg dry sediment, whereas the “Benidorm control” station exhibited the lowest value, at 920 MP/kg dry sediment.

At the control sites, where no ALDFG was present, MPs concentrations were consistently lower than at the impacted sites, indicating a clear contamination gradient potentially linked to the presence of fishing equipment and/or plastic residues (Tables S2 and S3).

Based on the available literature [19,45,46], MPs were classified into the following categories (Table S1): (I) fragments: rigid plastic particles; (II) line and line-like: fishing lines and net filaments; and (III) fiber and fiber-like: textile fibers likely originating from clothing or fabric-based materials.

MPs were categorized according to their size into two classes: particles smaller than 50 µm and those ranging from 50 to 500 µm. The proportion of MPs observed varied between impacted and control stations at both sampling stations. In the Alicante control area (Figure 2, Table S2), MPs consisted of 80% fibers and fiber-like particles, 10% lines and line-like particles, and 10% fragments. In contrast, in the Alicante with nets area, fibers and fiber-like accounted for 15% of the total, lines and line-like for 80%, and fragments for 5%.

Similarly, in the Benidorm control area, the dominant category was also fiber and fiber-like (60%), whereas in the Benidorm with nets area, the most abundant category was line and line-like (80%) (Figure 3, Table S3). In both the Alicante and Benidorm areas, the fragments category was the least abundant.

The µFTIR analysis further revealed a consistent presence of polyethylene (PE) in both “Alicante with nets” and “Benidorm with nets” stations, across particles <50 μm and those between 50 and 500 μm (Figure 4 and Figure 5, Tables S4 and S6).

This was in contrast to the corresponding control sites (Figure 5 and Figure 6, Tables S5 and S7), where such polymers were less prevalent. Additionally, a notable presence of polyamide (PA) was detected at “Alicante with nets,” a polymer commonly associated with nylon (PA6/PA66).

These findings align with the previous literature, such as Zhang et al. (2022) [47], which reported that fibers and fiber-like particles are the most common form of MPs in marine sediments, accounting for 85–90% of the total. Similarly, Chen et al. (2021) [48] reported comparable proportions, with 44.8% and 44.9% of the particles identified as fibers and fiber-like, respectively.

Visual observation under a stereomicroscope revealed a wide color range among the MPs, including both neutral tones (transparent and white) and vivid colors (orange, red, pink, green, and black), as also reported by Vitale et al. (2023) [19].

The identification of polymer types was carried out using software coupled to µFTIR/ATR-FTIR (Thermo Scientific™ OMNIC™ Picta, Version OMNIC Picta 1.8), by comparing the obtained spectra with those available in commercial libraries [16,17,18].

The polymers identified across all sampling stations included: polyethylene (PE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polysulfide rubber (PSR), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polylactic acid 4043D (PLA 4043D), polypropylene, polyamide (PA), and poly(styrene:acrylonitrile) (25% acrylonitrile) (SAN).

The structural–chemical analysis also identified the presence of nylon (PA6/PA66), which, along with other synthetic fibers and filaments such as polyamide, nylon, or polyethylene, suggests a possible correlation with ALDFG [19]. This is consistent with REDSINSA, 2021 [49] who reported that modern fishing nets are manufactured using the same synthetic materials identified in this study.

4. Discussion

Since MPs were detected at all four stations within the study area, comprising two impacted sites and two control sites, albeit in lower concentrations and proportions at the control sites. This study thus confirms that ALDFG constitutes a primary source of MPs pollution in the analyzed coastal ecosystems, with a consequent negative environmental impact on marine habitats. The detection of different polymer types and visual observation confirms that the selected study area is subject to contamination.

Morphological composition of MPs differed between control and net-impacted sediments at both study sites (chi-square tests based on Tables S8 and S9). MPs were categorized according to their size into two classes: particles smaller than 50 µm and those ranging from 50 to 500 µm.

In Alicante, line and line-like particles increased from 10% in control sediments to 80% in net-impacted sediments, corresponding to an eightfold increase, while fiber-like particles showed a marked decrease.

In Benidorm, line-like particles increased from 35% in control sediments to 80% in net-impacted sediments, indicating a pronounced shift in morphological composition associated with the presence of abandoned fishing nets.

Size-distribution analyses based on Tables S2–S7 indicated significant differences between control and net-impacted sediments at both sites. In Alicante, larger MPs (2–5 mm) were absent in control sediments but represented a dominant size class in net-impacted sediments, whereas control sediments were dominated by smaller size classes (<500 µm). In Benidorm, net-impacted sediments exhibited a higher relative contribution of larger MPs (2–5 mm) and a reduced proportion of the smallest size class (<50 µm) compared to control sediments.

Polymer composition also differed between control and net-impacted sediments, as shown by contingency-based analyses of FT-IR and ATR-FTIR data reported in Tables S2–S7. Net-impacted sediments in both Alicante and Benidorm showed an increased contribution of polymers commonly associated with fishing gear materials, including polyethylene-based and rubber-related polymers, compared to control sediments.

Effect size analyses supported the statistical outcomes by highlighting the magnitude and consistency of differences between conditions. Across both study areas, abandoned fishing nets were associated with pronounced increases in line-like morphologies, larger MPs size classes, and fishing-gear-related polymer types, indicating a strong and biologically meaningful influence of ALDFG on sediment MPs composition.

These differences highlight the influence of ALDFG on MPs distribution and typology, with potential ecological consequences. Once released into the environment, MPs derived from ghost net degradation can bioaccumulate at the organismal level and biomagnify along food webs, posing risks not only to top predators, such as seabirds, marine mammals, and elasmobranchs, but also to humans through seafood consumption [50]. Consequently, the degradation of ghost nets contributes to ecosystem-level disturbances and potential public health risks, underscoring the urgent need for effective mitigation strategies aimed at the management and removal of ALDFG [19].

The results reported by Do et al. (2023) [8] demonstrate that the presence of ALDFG and ghost fishing activities negatively affect multiple ecosystem services, including provisioning, supporting, and cultural services. In contrast, regulating services—defined as the processes governing the transformation of biochemical or physical inputs and the regulation of physical, chemical, and biological conditions within ecosystems [51]—have been more extensively examined in the broader context of marine litter rather than being specifically addressed in studies focused on ALDFG [52]. This highlights a gap in the literature regarding the regulation-related impacts of ghost fishing and ALDFG.

These findings underscore the urgent need to develop and implement effective strategies for the end-of-life (EOL) management and retrieval of fishing nets, with the goal of mitigating plastic pollution in marine environments. Simultaneously, despite growing awareness and policy interventions, significant knowledge gaps remain, particularly regarding long-term ecosystem effects and effective mitigation strategies, highlighting the pressing need for further research to better understand the mechanisms of MPs bioaccumulation and their dynamics within local food webs [23,53].

Habitat damage and the introduction of MPs further exacerbate the ecological footprint of ghost nets, with long-term consequences for ecosystem health and food web integrity [15,50,54,55].

5. Conclusions

The results of this study highlight a possible strong link between the presence of fishing gear—particularly nets—and the increased concentration and diversity of MPs in marine sediments. This research reports, for the first time, data concerning the concentration, morphology, and chemical composition of MPs in surface sediments collected from the coastal areas of Alicante and Benidorm, located in the Valencian Community along the eastern Spanish coastline, in the Mediterranean Sea.

To date, studies specifically focused on MPs contamination originating from abandoned fishing nets remain limited, making this work a valuable reference for future research. It is hoped that future studies will further investigate the extent of MPs contamination and the potential ecotoxicological risks associated with the persistent presence of fishing gear, even after their removal. The entanglement of marine organisms in the remnants of abandoned fishing equipment constitutes an additional threat to marine biodiversity [19].

MPs contamination poses a potential threat not only to marine fauna but also to human health, through bioaccumulation processes along the food chain. Despite growing awareness from the scientific community, policymakers, and civil society regarding the need to protect habitats and biodiversity, anthropogenic impacts and the depletion of fishery resources and sensitive ecosystems continue to escalate. Therefore, it is crucial to promote targeted interventions in areas heavily impacted by fishing activities or abandoned gear in order to support material recovery and mitigate the environmental burden of secondary plastic pollution.

The growing issue of ghost nets calls for a holistic approach in which temporal changes in their physical and chemical properties are adequately addressed. Integration of ghost gear mitigation strategies into fisheries management plans and certification schemes can further ensure compliance and scalability. Research priorities include long- term ecological monitoring post removal, field trials of alternative gear designs, standardized tracking of MPs generation and toxicant leaching, and socioeconomic studies in underrepresented regions.