# Recent Advances in Electrochemical Biosensors for the Detection of Milk Adulterants

## TL;DR

This review discusses recent progress in electrochemical biosensors for detecting harmful substances in milk, aiming to improve food safety and fraud prevention.

## Contribution

The paper provides a comprehensive overview of electrochemical and optical biosensors for milk adulterant detection, highlighting innovations and challenges.

## Key findings

- Electrochemical biosensors offer quick, sensitive, and on-site detection of milk adulterants.
- Key challenges include matrix interference, sensor stability, and scalability for real-world applications.
- Future biosensors should be portable, wearable, and integrated with IoT for continuous dairy monitoring.

## Abstract

The precise and reliable detection of milk adulterants has garnered increased scientific interest owing to the rising incidence of food fraud. Recent years have witnessed substantial advancements in optical and electrochemical biosensors for the quick, sensitive, and on-site determination of adulterants. This review thoroughly emphasizes recent developments in electrochemical biosensors, encompassing amperometric, voltammetric, impedimetric, and photoelectrochemical sensors, alongside optical biosensors such as colorimetric, fluorometric, and plasmonic systems. Significant focus is directed towards determination of critical milk adulterants, including variations in pH, urea, formaldehyde (FA), melamine (MEL), nitrates (NO3−), nitrites (NO2−), and sulfites (SO32−). The sensing mechanisms, functional nanomaterials, analytical efficacy, and sample-handling techniques of the described biosensors are critically examined. Moreover, key challenges regarding matrix interference, sensor stability, reproducibility, regulatory validation, and large-scalability are addressed. Ultimately, future directions towards economical, portable, wearable, and Internet of Things (IoT)-integrated biosensors for continuous dairy monitoring are discussed, highlighting the necessity for standardized validation protocols and next-generation technologies in food safety.