# Soil Moisture Inversion in Alfalfa via UAV with Feature Fusion and Ensemble Learning

## TL;DR

This paper explores using drones and machine learning to accurately measure soil moisture in alfalfa fields at different growth stages.

## Contribution

The study introduces a novel approach combining multi-source feature fusion and ensemble learning to improve soil moisture inversion accuracy in alfalfa.

## Key findings

- Ensemble models like Voting outperformed individual models, achieving an R2 of 0.874.
- Fusing spectral and texture features improved inversion accuracy, with R2 increasing by 0.065.
- Optimal inversion depth varied by growth stage, with 40–60 cm for branching and budding stages.

## Abstract

Timely access to soil moisture conditions in farmland crops is the foundation and key to achieving precise irrigation. Due to their high spatiotemporal resolution, unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) remote sensing has become an important method for monitoring soil moisture. This study addresses soil moisture retrieval in alfalfa fields across different growth stages. Based on UAV multispectral images, a multi-source feature set was constructed by integrating spectral and texture features. The performance of three machine learning models—random forest regression (RFR), K-nearest neighbors regression (KNN), and XG-Boost—as well as two ensemble learning models, Voting and Stacking, was systematically compared. The results indicate the following: (1) The integrated learning models generally outperform individual machine learning models, with the Voting model performing best across all growth stages, achieving a maximum R2 of 0.874 and an RMSE of 0.005; among the machine learning models, the optimal model varies with growth stage, with XG-Boost being the best during the branching and early flowering stages (maximum R2 of 0.836), while RFR performs better during the budding stage (R2 of 0.790). (2) The fusion of multi-source features significantly improved inversion accuracy. Taking the Voting model as an example, the accuracy of the fused features (R2 = 0.874) increased by 0.065 compared to using single-texture features (R2 = 0.809), and the RMSE decreased from 0.012 to 0.005. (3) In terms of inversion depth, the optimal inversion depth for the branching stage and budding stage is 40–60 cm, while the optimal depth for the early flowering stage is 20–40 cm. In summary, the method that integrates multi-source feature fusion and ensemble learning significantly improves the accuracy and stability of alfalfa soil moisture inversion, providing an effective technical approach for precise water management of artificial grasslands in arid regions.