# Citizen participation in climate politics. Drivers and barriers of Climate Assemblies in Europe

## TL;DR

This paper explores how European cities use Climate Assemblies to involve citizens in climate policymaking and identifies factors that help or hinder their success.

## Contribution

The study provides a mixed-methods analysis of Climate Assemblies in Europe, revealing patterns of use, drivers, barriers, and policy integration.

## Key findings

- Climate Assemblies are increasing in Europe but remain exceptions rather than standard practice.
- Key drivers include relevance to citizens, inclusivity, and political support, while barriers include lack of knowledge and unequal power.
- Only 9.4% of surveyed cities reported involving citizens in climate policy development.

## Abstract

Different forms of participation have been employed to engage citizens in the planning of climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies. Arguments in favor of citizen participation highlight the limitations of traditional democratic practices to address climate change. Climate Assemblies (CAs), a form of deliberative democracy, have become an increasingly popular way for citizens and politicians to collaborate on climate decision-making.

Using a mixed methods approach, this paper poses three questions. (1) To what extent do European cities and regions engage in CAs, and how are they embedded in policymaking? (2) What drives and impedes CAs? (3) To what extent are policymakers in European cities and regions ready and able to incorporate CAs and their results into policies?

Findings reveal an increase in CAs in Europe on different levels, primarily commissioned by public authorities. However, the connection between CAs and policymaking differs across countries. Research revealed the significance of political culture, the specific roles of citizens, policymakers and administration therein, and the importance of political backing of CAs. Important drivers of CAs include measures that safeguard relevance to citizens, equality, inclusive access, and impact. Barriers include knowledge about climate change and deliberative democracy, lacking inclusiveness of CAs and asymmetry in political power. Survey data shows that climate policies have become established practices in many European cities and regions and that various engagement approaches are used to develop them. However, only 9.4% of respondents stated that city officials developed climate change policies with stakeholder input, including citizens. Citizen participation is infrequent, and involvement in policy development and implementation is unequally distributed, favoring some groups over others. While some results of stakeholder and citizen engagement activities were adopted, recommendations were not always translated into policies.

Currently, CAs are rather an exception than the norm across Europe.

There are various ways to engage citizens in the development of climate policies. Supporters of public involvement in these issues argue that traditional democratic processes are inadequate for addressing climate change and mitigation. One way people and politicians collaborate in this area is through a Climate Assembly (CA). At such an event, a group of citizens chosen at random from different backgrounds come together to learn about and discuss ways to tackle climate change. Then, they provide recommendations to policymakers. This paper asks three questions: (1) How often do European cities and regions use CAs, and how are they used to develop policies? (2) What enables or prevents CAs from happening? (3) How ready are policymakers to use CAs and their results? The results show that the number of CAs in Europe is increasing, often on behalf of public authorities. However, the relationship between CAs and policymaking varies. The research demonstrated the importance of political culture and support. Key factors of CAs include ensuring that topics are relevant to citizens, that everyone is treated equally and has equal access to CAs, and that CAs have an actual impact on policies. Three main barriers exist: First, when citizens and policymakers lack sufficient knowledge about climate change and deliberative democracy, Second, when CAs are not inclusive enough. (3) When political power is not distributed equally between citizens and policymakers. The survey shows that many European cities and regions have climate policies and use different methods to develop them. However, only 9.4% of respondents from European cities and regions said city officials developed climate change policies with stakeholder input, including from citizens. While some citizen engagement was used, their recommendations were not always turned into policies. CAs are the exception rather than the norm in Europe.