# Efficacy of injectable versus topical formulation of ivermectin against Anopheles stephensi mosquitoes feeding on different body locations of treated Holstein calves

## TL;DR

This study compares how injectable and topical ivermectin affect Anopheles stephensi mosquitoes feeding on different parts of treated calves.

## Contribution

The study reveals that topical ivermectin remains localized and is less effective when mosquitoes feed on untreated body areas.

## Key findings

- Both injectable and topical ivermectin reduced mosquito survival and fecundity for up to 9 and 14 days.
- Topical ivermectin on the back reduced mosquito survival for 23 days but not on other body parts.
- Mosquitoes were less likely to feed on topically treated calves, suggesting mild repellency.

## Abstract

Malaria is a major public health concern and is transmitted to humans by the bite of infected Anopheles mosquitoes. One strategy to reduce populations of zoophagic Anopheles (i.e., likely to feed on other animals as well as humans) is the use of systemic veterinary parasiticides. The most widely systemic parasiticide used for this purpose is ivermectin. Ivermectin is available for livestock in two formulations; injectable and topical “pour-on.” The purpose of this study was to evaluate the survival and fecundity of a zoophagic species, Anopheles stephensi, when fed on calves treated with different ivermectin formulations.

Three groups of four dairy calves were used; calves in one group received a single subcutaneous injection of commercial ivermectin, calves in another group were treated topically once with pour-on ivermectin, and the third group was left untreated. At various times after treatment, groups of mosquitoes were fed simultaneously on different parts of the body to determine if feeding location of mosquitoes influenced the efficacy of treatment. Engorged mosquitoes were maintained for 7 days to monitor survival and fecundity.

Both formulations significantly reduced An. stephensi survival and fecundity for up to 9 and 14 days, respectively, following treatment of calves. Topical formulation of ivermectin applied to the back of the calves significantly reduced the survival of An. stephensi that fed on the back for up to 23 days after treatment, but not for mosquitoes that fed concurrently on the belly or the leg of the same calves, suggesting that a portion of topically applied ivermectin may remain at the site of application. Mosquitoes were less likely to feed on topically treated calves, implying that topical application may confer some mild repellency.

Determining the body location(s) where zoophagic Anopheles mosquitoes feed on livestock (e.g., legs) will allow targeted application and methods (e.g., foot baths) for more efficient use of topical formulations of ivermectin as part of an integrated zoophagic vector management strategy.

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13071-025-07225-9.