# Food Label Readability and Consumption Frequency: Isolating Content-Specific Effects via a Non-Equivalent Dependent Variable Design

## TL;DR

This study explores how the readability of food labels affects how often people consume specific foods, finding that effects vary by product type and consumer engagement.

## Contribution

The study introduces a novel method using non-equivalent dependent variables to isolate content-specific effects of food label readability.

## Key findings

- Readability of labels for pre-packaged sandwiches showed a warning effect in 2012 but reversed by 2018.
- No significant association was found for pre-cooked meat, dairy, or fresh meat.
- Less-engaged consumers showed the strongest association between label readability and consumption frequency for sandwiches.

## Abstract

Objective: This study investigates the association between consumers’ perceived readability of Multiple Traffic Light (MTL) label print size—a theoretical structural gatekeeper for visual salience—and self-reported food consumption frequency in the United Kingdom. We aimed to disentangle the effect of label readability from label content. Using non-equivalent dependent variables (NEDVs), we tested whether the association is specific to unhealthy convenience foods and absent for healthy or unlabeled foods, while also examining heterogeneity across consumer subgroups. Methods: Data from 8948 adults across four waves (2012–2018) of the UK Food and You Survey were analyzed. Cumulative link ordinal logistic regressions were employed to model the association between self-reported print size readability and the consumption frequency of four product types: pre-packaged sandwiches and pre-cooked meat (unhealthy, labeled targets), dairy (nutritionally advisable, labeled control), and fresh meat (unlabeled control). Models were adjusted for sociodemographic covariates, health behaviors, and survey wave fixed effects. Results: The findings reveal a content-specific and significant dynamic relationship exclusively for pre-packaged sandwiches. In 2012, a one-unit increase in readability was associated with a 9% decrease in the odds of frequent consumption (OR=0.91), consistent with a warning effect. However, by 2018, this relationship reversed to a 4% increase (OR=1.04), indicating that higher readability became associated with more frequent consumption. In contrast, a persistent null association was observed for pre-cooked meat, dairy, and fresh meat. Subgroup analyses for sandwiches indicated that the association with readability was strongest among less-engaged consumers. Conclusions: Empirical evidence challenges the utility of a standardized approach to food labelling. The results suggest that the effectiveness of label salience is contingent not just on the consumer but on the product’s context and the content of its message, highlighting the need for adaptive rather than uniform policy standards.