# A Review on Modified Montmorillonite-Based Catalysts for Biofuel and Recycled Carbon Fuel Production

## TL;DR

This review explores modified montmorillonite catalysts for producing sustainable marine biofuels and recycled carbon fuels from biomass and plastic waste.

## Contribution

The paper introduces an integrated analysis of montmorillonite-based catalysts for full fuel production and upgrading chains.

## Key findings

- Montmorillonite modification strategies significantly affect catalytic performance in fuel production.
- Modified montmorillonite offers a low-cost and eco-friendly alternative to traditional zeolite catalysts.
- Research gaps include catalyst stability and compliance with marine fuel standards.

## Abstract

The maritime transport sector’s reliance on fossil-based fuels remains a major contributor to global greenhouse gas emissions, underscoring the urgent need for sustainable alternatives such as marine biofuels. Thermochemical pyrolysis of biomass and plastic waste represents a promising route for producing renewable and recycled marine fuel feedstocks. This review provides an integrated analysis of the full production and upgrading chain, encompassing pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass and polymer-derived resources, catalytic upgrading, and qualitative evaluation of product distribution and yield trends. Particular emphasis is placed on montmorillonite-based catalysts as naturally abundant, low-cost, and environmentally benign alternatives to conventional zeolites. The review systematically examines the influence of key montmorillonite modification strategies, including acid activation, pillaring, and ion-exchanged, on acidity, textural properties, and catalytic performance in catalytic cracking and hydrodeoxygenation processes. The analysis shows that catalyst modification strongly governs the yield, selectivity, and reproducibility of biofuels. By adopting this integrated perspective, the review extends beyond existing works focused on isolated upgrading steps or zeolitic catalysts. Key research gaps are identified, particularly regarding long-term catalyst stability, deep deoxygenation of real bio-oils, and compliance with marine fuel standards.