# Detection of Feigned Impairment of the Shoulder Due to External Incentives: A Comprehensive Review

## TL;DR

This paper reviews methods to detect when people fake shoulder injuries for personal gain, emphasizing the need for a multi-step approach combining clinical and technological tools.

## Contribution

The paper proposes a systematic integration of clinical, biomechanical, and technological assessments to improve detection of feigned shoulder impairments.

## Key findings

- Feigned shoulder impairment detection requires a multidimensional evaluation combining clinical and objective measurements.
- Instrumented strength testing and motion capture can reveal submaximal performance and compensatory strategies.
- No single test can confirm feigned impairment; a combination of methods and rigorous documentation is necessary.

## Abstract

Background: Feigned restriction of shoulder joint movement for secondary gain is clinically relevant and may misdirect care, distort disability determinations, and inflate system costs. Distinguishing feigning from structural pathology and from functional or psychosocial presentations is difficult because pain is subjective, performance varies, and no single sign or test is definitive. This comprehensive review hypothesizes that the systematic integration of clinical examination, objective biomechanical and neurophysiological testing, and emerging technologies can substantially improve detection accuracy and provide defensible medicolegal documentation. Methods: PubMed and reference lists were searched within a prespecified time frame (primarily 2015–2025, with foundational earlier works included when conceptually essential) using terms related to shoulder movement restriction, malingering/feigning, symptom validity, effort testing, functional assessment, and secondary gain. Evidence was synthesized narratively, emphasizing objective or semi-objective quantification of motion and effort (goniometry, dynamometry, electrodiagnostics, kinematic sensing, and imaging). Results: Detection is best approached as a stepwise, multidimensional evaluation. First-line clinical assessment focuses on reproducible incongruence: non-anatomic patterns, internal inconsistencies, distraction-related improvement, and mismatch between claimed disability and observed function. Repeated examinations and documentation strengthen inference. Instrumented strength testing improves quantification beyond manual testing but remains effort-dependent; repeat-trial variability and atypical agonist–antagonist co-activation can indicate submaximal performance without proving intent. Imaging primarily tests plausibility by confirming lesions or highlighting discordance between claimed limitation and minimal pathology, while recognizing that normal imaging does not exclude pain. Diagnostic anesthetic injections and electrodiagnostics can clarify pain-mediated restriction or exclude neuropathic weakness but require cautious interpretation. Motion capture and inertial sensors can document compensatory strategies and context-dependent normalization, yet validated standalone thresholds are limited. Conclusions: Feigned shoulder impairment cannot be confirmed by any single test. The desirable strategy combines structured assessment of inconsistencies with objective biomechanical and neurophysiologic measurements, interpreted within the whole clinical context and rigorously documented; however, prospective validation is still needed before routine implementation.