# Neural Correlates of Cognitive Gains Induced by Commercially Available Cognitive Training Programs: A Meta-Analysis of Neuroimaging Studies

## TL;DR

Commercial cognitive training programs improve cognitive performance and change brain activity in specific regions, with training frequency, compliance, and age affecting outcomes.

## Contribution

First quantitative neuroimaging meta-analysis of commercial cognitive training programs and their neural correlates.

## Key findings

- Cognitive training led to moderate cognitive performance improvement (Hedges’ g = 0.485).
- Increased activation in L.ACC, R.IFG, and R.STG, and decreased activation in R.SMA were observed.
- Training frequency, compliance, and age influenced brain activation changes and cognitive improvement.

## Abstract

Background: Commercial cognitive training programs are widely marketed as tools for enhancing cognitive performance, yet training-related task-related brain activation changes remain incompletely characterized. This preregistered meta-analysis aimed to synthesize evidence on whether commercially available cognitive training is associated with improvements in cognitive function and convergent alterations in task-related brain activation, and to explore factors that may moderate these effects. Methods: A multivariate meta-analysis was conducted on behavioral outcomes to estimate the overall effect of training on cognitive performance. Task-based neuroimaging findings were synthesized using a coordinate-based neuroimaging meta-analysis to identify consistent activation changes associated with training. Exploratory analyses examined whether participant characteristics and training parameters were associated with training-related activation changes and whether these changes were related to cognitive improvement. Results: Commercial cognitive training was associated with a significant moderate improvement in cognitive performance (Hedges’ g = 0.485; 95% CI = 0.149–0.821; t = 2.924; p = 0.006). Neuroimaging analyses revealed increased activation in the left anterior cingulate cortex (L.ACC), right inferior frontal gyrus (R.IFG) and right superior temporal gyrus (R.STG), together with decreased activation in the right supplementary motor area (R.SMA). In exploratory analyses, training frequency, compliance and age were associated with differences in training-related brain activation. Activation within the L.ACC and R.IFG was significantly related to cognitive improvement. Conclusions: Commercial cognitive training was associated with cognitive gains and convergent task-related activation differences across studies. These findings provide the first quantitative neuroimaging synthesis of commercial cognitive training and highlight training frequency, compliance and age as potential moderators of training-related neural outcomes.