# Surface properties of Ga–Cu based liquid-metal alloys: impact of Cu dilution, topography, and alloy liquefaction

## TL;DR

The study explores how copper affects gallium-based liquid metal alloys, focusing on surface properties and their implications for catalysis.

## Contribution

The paper provides new insights into how Cu dilution and temperature affect the electronic structure and surface properties of Ga–Cu liquid metal alloys.

## Key findings

- Cu 2p core level shifts to higher binding energies with decreasing Cu content due to site isolation.
- Cu surface content at low temperatures is attributed to crystallized Cu-rich intermetallic compounds.
- ML-FF simulations support the observed changes in local environment with temperature.

## Abstract

We studied the surface properties of Ga–Cu based liquid metal alloys – a promising material system for supported catalytically active liquid metal solutions (SCALMSs). The impact of Cu dilution in the (liquid) Ga matrix is in-detail investigated by X-ray and UV photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS/UPS) and machine-learned-force field (ML-FF) calculations. With decreasing Cu content, microscopic and macroscopic Ga–Cu model samples exhibit a shift of the Cu 2p core level line to higher binding energies (Eb) as well as a correspondingly shifted and narrowed d-band with respect to pure Cu, which we ascribe to site isolation. To study the property evolution of Ga–Cu at SCALMS reaction conditions, i.e., where Cu is present in liquid Ga, additional XPS measurements were performed between 100 and 500 °C. The observed Cu 2p shift to lower Eb is tentatively ascribed to changes in the local environment with increasing temperature, i.e. bond elongation, which is corroborated by ML-FF simulations; the increased Cu surface content at low temperatures is attributed to the presence of crystallized Cu-rich intermetallic compounds, as evidenced by transmission electron microscopy images. In an attempt to generalize the findings for filled d-band transition metals (TMs) in liquid Ga, first results on Ga–Ag and Ga–Au model systems are presented. The observed insights may be another step of paving the way for an insight-driven development of low-temperature melting liquid metals for heterogeneous catalysis.

Demonstration of structural and morphological evolution of Cu in the Ga matrix upon alloy formation and liquefaction.