# Invisible lines of inequality: intersections of gender, motherhood, and work-based discrimination in Bulgaria

## TL;DR

This study explores how motherhood and gender intersect with other factors like ethnicity and class to create workplace discrimination in Bulgaria, revealing how early disadvantages compound over time.

## Contribution

The study introduces a novel intersectional and cumulative inequality framework to analyze how motherhood-related discrimination is shaped by structural and institutional factors in post-socialist Bulgaria.

## Key findings

- Ethnic minority status and economic vulnerability are strong predictors of workplace discrimination in the general working sample.
- Among employed mothers, prior personal experience of discrimination strongly predicts motherhood-related bias.
- Younger age is associated with higher risks of discrimination, possibly due to precarious employment and employer assumptions about caregiving.

## Abstract

Motherhood remains one of the most persistent axes of gender inequality in the labor market. Caregiving responsibilities are linked to pay penalties, stalled career progression, and restricted opportunities, risks intensified in post-socialist Bulgaria by occupational segregation, weak family policy support, and precarious employment. Drawing on intersectionality and cumulative inequality theory, this study investigates how structural inequalities and workplace dynamics intersect to shape experiences of discrimination, distinguishing between general workplace discrimination and bias specifically linked to motherhood.

Conceptually, the study uses intersectionality to capture how gender intersects with ethnicity, class, family status, and age to produce distinct disadvantages, and cumulative inequality theory to explain how early exclusions compound over time. We situate these dynamics within gendered organizations—where the “ideal worker” norm and evaluation regimes privilege masculinized availability—and recognize subtle discrimination and cognitive bias as micro-foundations with health and stability consequences. We also consider institutional mechanisms—uneven enforcement, opacity, and weak support—that shape awareness of rights and reporting.

The analysis is based on nationally representative survey data collected in Bulgaria (December 2022–January 2023) through computer-assisted personal interviews (N = 937). The analytic sample included currently or previously employed respondents (N = 638) and a subsample of employed mothers (N = 345). Dependent variables captured (a) overall personal discrimination and (b) motherhood-related discrimination. Predictors included socio-demographics, employment characteristics, economic strain, health, knowledge of rights, and attitudinal measures. Logistic regressions (bivariate and multivariate) were used to identify significant associations.

In the full working sample, ethnic minority status (OR = 5.72) and economic vulnerability (OR = 3.46) were the strongest predictors of reporting discrimination. Among employed mothers, overall discrimination was associated with economic strain, younger age, and perceptions of unfair hiring. Motherhood-specific discrimination was most strongly predicted by prior personal experience of workplace discrimination (bivariate OR ≈ 15.5; multivariate aOR ≈ 46.2) and younger age, with weaker effects for perceptions of unfair hiring and self-rated health. Ethnicity and education were non-significant within the mothers' subsample, reflecting early-stage exclusion from employment rather than absence of risk.

The findings highlight both structural disadvantage and context-specific mechanisms. Early-stage gatekeeping likely filters out the most marginalized before they enter or remain in the category of employed mothers. Cumulative disadvantage is evident, as prior discrimination strongly predicts motherhood-related bias. Age effects suggest younger women face higher risks, potentially linked to precarious employment and employer assumptions about caregiving.

Findings underscore the cumulative and institutional nature of gendered inequality, where early exclusion and organizational norms jointly reproduce disadvantage. Addressing discrimination requires moving beyond formal legislation to tackle organizational cultures, procedural transparency, and early exclusion mechanisms, while strengthening protections for vulnerable groups and supporting employees with caregiving responsibilities.