# The functional effects of African lions on co-occurring carnivores differ across species pairs and with changes in resource availability and lion abundance

## TL;DR

African lions affect other carnivores differently depending on resources and lion numbers, with some species avoiding them more in resource-rich areas.

## Contribution

The study reveals how lion presence influences co-occurring carnivores through interactions with resource availability and habitat preferences.

## Key findings

- Carnivore occurrence is best predicted by access to their own key resources.
- Lions interact significantly with cheetahs, leopards, and hyenas in resource-rich landscapes.
- Lion presence generally reduces co-occurrence of other carnivores, especially with increasing resources.

## Abstract

Apex carnivores are known to regulate ecosystem structure and function, including via interactions with syntopic, competitively inferior carnivores. These effects may be dependent on relative carnivore density and resource availability or productivity. We investigated the functional effect of African lions as an apex carnivore on the presence of co-occurring large carnivore species across two adjoining National Parks that contrast in relative densities of carnivores and prey. We employed two-species occupancy models from track data to test statistical interactions between lions and the other syntopic large carnivore species, while accounting for each species’ habitat selection. We further investigated the influence of anthropogenic and natural variables on these co-occurrence dynamics. Our models revealed that the occurrence of each carnivore species was best predicted by access to their own key resources. We also found significant statistical interactions between lions and cheetahs, lions and leopards, and lions and spotted hyenas in resource-rich landscapes. Finally, we found limited support for the competition exclusion hypothesis between most species, with the exception of lion-African wild dog co-occurrence patterns. Species’ co-occurrence dynamics were all influenced by resource availability, with lion-leopard and lion-cheetah co-occurrence decreasing strongly with increasing resource availability. Most species co-occurrence declined with increasing occurrence of lions. The patterns revealed by this study improves predictions of how changes in resource availability and carnivore occurrence could impact carnivore community dynamics and the functional role of apex carnivores.

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00442-025-05855-5.