# Coach‐Perpetrated Interpersonal Violence: Witnessing, Perceived Harmfulness and the Role of Coaching Motivational Climate

## TL;DR

This study explores how coaches in the North Mediterranean region perceive violence in sports, finding that psychological violence is common but seen as less harmful, and that coaching styles influence these perceptions.

## Contribution

The study identifies links between coaching climates and perceptions of violence harm, emphasizing the need for culturally tailored training to reduce violence in sports.

## Key findings

- Psychological violence is most frequently witnessed but perceived as least harmful compared to physical and sexual violence.
- Empowering coaching climates correlate with higher recognition of violence harm, while disempowering climates correlate with lower recognition.
- Gender, professional status, and education influence coaches' perceptions of violence, highlighting the need for training programs.

## Abstract

Coach‐perpetrated interpersonal violence can pose significant risks to athletes' development as well as psychological, physical and social well‐being worldwide. This study examined the perceived harmfulness of witnessed coach‐perpetrated interpersonal violence behaviours in the North Mediterranean region, alongside any associations with coaching climates (empowering and disempowering). Data were collected from 494 active coaches across Cyprus, Greece, Italy, Malta, Spain and Portugal through an online questionnaire where they reported witnessing and perceived harm of psychological, physical, instrumental and sexual violence, as well as their coaching climates. The analysis showed psychological violence as the most frequently witnessed form and physical violence being perceived as the most harmful one. An empowering coaching climate, characterised by autonomy support and positive reinforcement, correlated positively with higher perceived harm, especially for psychological and instrumental violence. Conversely, a disempowering climate, marked by control and punitive behaviours, correlated with lower perceived harm. Gender, coach education and professional status were found to influence coaches' perceptions, highlighting that cultural and structural complexities have a role towards interpersonal violence tolerance. The study underscores the critical need for culturally tailored safe sport initiatives, mandatory training of coaches in safe coaching behaviours and practices and proactive safeguarding measures to mitigate interpersonal violence across diverse sporting contexts. Culturally informed interventions need to challenge the normalisation of violence in coaching and encourage empowering climates that place athletes in the centre and prioritise their welfare.

Psychological violence is the most frequently witnessed form of interpersonal violence by coaches in the North Mediterranean region, whereas it is perceived as least harmful compared to physical and sexual violence.Empowering coaching climates are associated with higher recognition of the harm caused by interpersonal violence behaviours in the region, whereas disempowering climates are associated with lower recognition of such harm.Gender, professional status and coach education appear to have an effect on the coaches' perceptions of interpersonal violence, emphasising the need for comprehensive, culturally informed training programmes.

Psychological violence is the most frequently witnessed form of interpersonal violence by coaches in the North Mediterranean region, whereas it is perceived as least harmful compared to physical and sexual violence.

Empowering coaching climates are associated with higher recognition of the harm caused by interpersonal violence behaviours in the region, whereas disempowering climates are associated with lower recognition of such harm.

Gender, professional status and coach education appear to have an effect on the coaches' perceptions of interpersonal violence, emphasising the need for comprehensive, culturally informed training programmes.