# The Embodied Simulation of L2 Grammatical Aspect: Proficiency-Dependent Evidence from the Action-Sentence Compatibility Effect

## TL;DR

This study shows that how Chinese learners of English process grammatical aspects in sentences depends on their language proficiency and involves different mental simulation strategies.

## Contribution

The study introduces a proficiency-dependent dual-pathway model for how grammatical meaning is embodied in second language acquisition.

## Key findings

- Advanced learners show action-sentence compatibility effects only for progressive aspect sentences.
- Low-proficiency learners exhibit compatibility effects for perfective aspect sentences.
- Embodiment in L2 grammatical processing evolves from lexical to grammatical as proficiency increases.

## Abstract

Using the Action–Sentence Compatibility Effect (ACE) paradigm, this study investigated whether types of grammatical aspects and L2 proficiency influence embodied simulation during L2 sentence comprehension of English among Chinese learners. Participants judged the semantic plausibility of sentences in progressive or perfective aspect by performing directional actions (toward or away the body) that were either compatible or incompatible with the action direction described. Analysis of the reaction times (RTs) revealed a significant main effect of proficiency, with low-proficiency learners responding more slowly overall. Crucially, we observed a significant three-way interaction between aspect, action–sentence consistency, and proficiency. Simple effects analyses revealed a qualitative reversal: advanced learners exhibited a significant ACE only for sentences in the progressive aspect, indicating grammatically guided simulation sensitive to ongoing actions, whereas we found no ACE for perfective sentences, consistent with their focus on event completion rather than on-going action processes. In contrast, low-proficiency learners showed a significant ACE for the perfective aspect, suggesting a reliance on lexically triggered simulation, while they showed no simulation effect for the progressive aspect due to shallow morphosyntactic processing and L1 transfer. These findings support a proficiency-dependent dual-pathway model of L2 embodiment: advanced learners engage in direct mapping from grammar to simulation, whereas low-proficiency learners rely on an indirect, lexically mediated route. In summary, our findings demonstrate that the embodiment of grammatical meaning in L2 acquisition is not automatic, but is developmentally modulated, evolving from a lexically dependent to grammar-dependent simulation as proficiency increases. Furthermore, these results call for future research to explore the pedagogical applications of grammar-focused embodied instruction and to examine this dual-pathway model across other linguistic structures and L2 populations.