# Trait xenophobia is more strongly related to maladaptive beliefs and pandemic health behaviors than affective symptoms

## TL;DR

This study shows that xenophobic beliefs are more linked to harmful thinking and poor pandemic behaviors than to mental health symptoms.

## Contribution

It reveals that maladaptive beliefs, not just mental health issues, strongly influence pandemic-related health behaviors.

## Key findings

- Xenophobia is more strongly correlated with conspiratorial beliefs than with anxiety, depression, or paranoia.
- Maladaptive beliefs are more strongly associated with reduced pandemic health behaviors than psychopathology symptoms.
- A two-factor model explains 66% of the variance in symptoms and beliefs, with xenophobia loading heavily on maladaptive beliefs.

## Abstract

Xenophobia is a prevalent phenomenon with significant personal and societal consequences. As expressed by individuals, it can be influenced by psychological or psychiatric factors. Negative affect is an important aspect of xenophobia, and both negative affect and xenophobia have increased in prevalence during the COVID-19 pandemic, suggesting a potential association. We tested whether trait-like xenophobic beliefs relate to common affective symptoms, compared to other maladaptive beliefs such as conspiratorial beliefs, and, in turn, how these symptoms and beliefs relate to pandemic-related health behaviors.

A total of 520 American adults completed validated online self-reported questionnaires addressing xenophobia, conspiracy beliefs, symptoms of paranoia, anxiety and depression, fear of COVID-19, and inclination to engage in pandemic-related behaviors (precautions, testing, and vaccination).

Statistically significant positive bivariate correlations of moderate strength were observed between xenophobia and conspiracy beliefs, both general (conspiracy-mindedness) and specific (about vaccines). Significant but weaker positive correlations were observed between xenophobia and paranoia, anxiety, and depression. An exploratory factor analysis of symptoms and beliefs revealed a two-factor solution accounting for 66% of the total variance. Xenophobia had a strong loading on the Maladaptive Belief factor, with factor scores significantly negatively associated with the three pandemic health behaviors, whereas Psychopathology factor scores showed weaker, positive associations with pandemic health behaviors. Regression models of pandemic health behaviors similarly showed both factor scores as significant independent predictors of each health behavior, with Maladaptive Belief contributing a relatively much larger share of variance.

Xenophobia is more strongly associated with other maladaptive beliefs than with common psychiatric symptoms. Maladaptive beliefs, compared with common psychiatric symptoms, is also more closely associated with a disinclination to engage in adaptive pandemic-related health behaviors. These findings may have implications for mitigating the personal and public health effects of a global pandemic.