# What kind of urban–rural basic public services can affect the urban–rural income gap?–an analysis of FsQCA based on the TOE framework

## TL;DR

This study explores how urban-rural public services influence income gaps in China's Yangtze River Delta using a framework that considers technology, organizations, and environment.

## Contribution

The study introduces a novel fsQCA-based analysis within the TOE framework to identify multiple pathways influencing urban-rural income disparities.

## Key findings

- Three configurations each of high and non-high income disparity were identified, emphasizing the importance of combinations over single factors.
- High-disparity pathways include fiscal constraints, digital infrastructure lag, and economic stagnation linked to public service shortages.
- Non-high-disparity pathways involve economic output rebalancing, regional coordination, and governance innovations.

## Abstract

The urban–rural income gap and the non-equalization of basic public services constitute the core contradiction in China’s urban–rural development.

This study employs the fsQCA method based on the TOE framework to determine how technological, organizational, and environmental conditions collectively shape the urban–rural income gap in China’s Yangtze River Delta region.

The findings reveal three distinct configurations of high income disparity and three distinct configurations of non-high income disparity, emphasizing that no single factor is indispensable. Rather, combinations are crucial. High-disparity configurations manifest through three divergent pathways: dual squeezes from fiscal constraints and lagging digital infrastructure; structural disconnect between economic growth and digitalization; and cyclical lock-in between low-level economies and public service shortages. Non-high-disparity configurations emerge via three equivalent pathways: factor rebalancing driven by high economic output; cross-regional coordination through institutional optimization and digital empowerment; and compensatory mechanisms based on fiscal resilience and governance innovation.

The study offers recommendations for basic public service allocation across cities in China’s three major regions, holding significant implications for the integrated urban–rural development of China.