# Evidence for symbolic use of ochre by Micoquian Neanderthals in Crimea

## TL;DR

Neanderthals in Crimea may have used ochre for symbolic purposes, as shown by modified pieces that suggest intentional marking and curated use.

## Contribution

The study provides new evidence of symbolic behavior among Neanderthals through the analysis of modified ochre artifacts in Crimea.

## Key findings

- Three ochre pieces show features beyond utilitarian use, such as crayon-like shaping and engraved surfaces.
- Deliberate modifications like grinding and resharpening suggest intentional production of marks.
- The findings highlight the cognitive complexity of Neanderthals and the need for regional approaches in studying symbolic material culture.

## Abstract

Ochre use is widely regarded as a potential marker of symbolic behavior in Paleolithic societies. We conducted a multiproxy analysis of 16 ochre pieces from Middle Paleolithic Micoquian sites in Crimea [Zaskalnaya V (ZSKV), ZSKVI, and Prolom II] and mainland Ukraine (Mukhovets), spanning up to 70,000 years. Using portable x-ray fluorescence, scanning electron microscopy coupled to energy-dispersive spectroscopy, and technological analysis, we identified deliberate modifications including grinding, scoring, flaking, and scraping. Three pieces (ZSKV-05, ZSKV-06, and ZSKV-07) show features exceeding utilitarian use: One is shaped into a crayon-like tool with repeated resharpening, another appears to be a crayon fragment, and a third bears engraved, polished surfaces. These traits suggest the intentional production of marks and curated use. While practical applications (e.g., hide processing) remain plausible for other specimens, the evidence supports symbolic use among some Crimean Neanderthals. Our results highlight their cognitive complexity and underscore the importance of regional, multiproxy approaches in evaluating the emergence of symbolic material culture.

Technological and chemical analyses of Crimean ochres reveal modified pieces consistent with symbolic use by Neanderthals.