# Sleep Paralysis Among Higher Education Students: A Possible Role of Antidepressant and Recreational Stimulant Use

## TL;DR

This study finds that sleep paralysis is common among students and may be linked to antidepressant or stimulant use and poor sleep quality.

## Contribution

The study identifies a novel correlation between sleep paralysis and the use of antidepressants or recreational stimulants among students.

## Key findings

- 43.3% of students reported experiencing sleep paralysis, with 73.1% experiencing it more than once.
- Sleep paralysis was associated with antidepressant or stimulant use, higher alcohol intake, and lower sleep quality.
- Stress, supine sleeping position, and disturbed sleep cycles were commonly reported triggers for sleep paralysis.

## Abstract

Background and Objectives: While sleep paralysis (SP) is a well-defined disorder, its pathophysiology and causes remain elusive. We aimed to assess the prevalence of sleep paralysis among higher education students and determine factors associated with SP with a focus on psychoactive substance and medication use. Materials and Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional online survey across higher education institutions in Lithuania, asking students to report the occurrence and frequency of SP as well as its characteristics and self-rated sleep quality alongside demographic data and history of medication and psychoactive substance use. Subgroup comparisons and correlation analyses were performed in search of factors associated with reported SP. Results: The study sample consisted of 275 respondents aged 22.9 ± 4.7 years (240, 87.3% female), 119 (43.3%) of whom reported having experienced SP (average age at first episode 16.4 ± 4.2 years), with 87 (73.1%) more than once. The phenomenology of SP episodes included mostly visual, auditory, sensory, or olfactory hallucinations (73, 61.3%), feelings of fear or anxiety (56, 47.1%), incubus-like phenomena (17, 14.3%), and autonomic symptoms (6, 5.0%). Having experienced SP was associated with the use of antidepressants or recreational stimulant use (χ2 = 5.258, p = 0.022) as well as higher alcohol intake (Z = −3.568, p < 0.001) and lower self-rated sleep quality (Z = −2.413, p = 0.016). Earlier age of onset, hallucinations during paralysis, specific time of manifestation during the night, and overall nightmare frequency were related to the recurrence of SP. Respondents tied SP episodes mostly to stress or anxiety (55, 46.2%), the supine sleeping position (31, 26.1%), disturbed sleep cycles (28, 23.5%), and emotional or traumatic experiences (28, 23.5%). Conclusions: Our study suggests that SP is prevalent among students with a tendency to recur. We report a correlational association between SP and the use of antidepressants or stimulant drugs, suggesting the need to further explore the possible role of psychoactive agents in this disorder.