# Microbial and Chemical Water Quality Assessments Across the Rural and Urban Areas of Nepal: A Scoping Review

## TL;DR

This study reviews water quality in Nepal, finding high levels of harmful bacteria and arsenic, which contribute to diseases like typhoid and arsenicosis.

## Contribution

The study provides a comprehensive scoping review of microbial and chemical water quality in Nepal, highlighting critical public health and governance gaps.

## Key findings

- Bacteria and arsenic are the most prevalent contaminants in Nepal's water sources.
- Diseases like arsenicosis and typhoid are widespread and may be linked to contaminated water.
- Key gaps include limited geographic coverage, inconsistent testing, and weak regulatory enforcement.

## Abstract

Nepal is currently facing critical water quality challenges due to urbanization, water management and governance issues, as well as natural disasters. This has resulted in the presence of harmful contaminants (e.g., pathogens, nitrates, arsenic) across multiple water sources, subsequently leading to waterborne disease risks (e.g., cholera and typhoid). In response to these environmental and public health concerns, we conducted a scoping review to assess microbial and chemical contaminants in drinking and irrigation water in Nepal, as well as their potential impacts on public health. Following the JBI Manual for Evidence Synthesis and the PRISMA-SCR guidelines, we systematically searched for peer-reviewed literature on Nepal’s water quality in seven databases. Of 3666 unique records screened using predefined inclusion criteria, 140 met our criteria. The studies encompassed a variety of methodological designs, with the majority focusing on water sources in the Bagmati province. Bacteria and arsenic emerged as the most prevalent contaminants. Additionally, diseases such as arsenicosis and typhoid remain widespread and may be linked to contaminated water sources. The review identified key gaps in Nepal’s water quality management, including limited geographic research coverage, inconsistent testing protocols, weak regulatory enforcement, and a lack of integration of water quality with public health planning. Our findings underscore the urgent need for effective surveillance systems and a robust regulatory framework to promptly respond to water contamination events in Nepal.