# Peer Preference and Executive Functioning Development: Longitudinal Relations Among Females With and Without ADHD

## TL;DR

This study explores how being liked or disliked by peers in childhood affects the development of executive functioning skills in girls with and without ADHD into early adulthood.

## Contribution

The study reveals that childhood peer preference uniquely predicts EF development, independent of ADHD diagnosis.

## Key findings

- Lower peer preference in childhood is linked to poorer global executive functioning over time.
- Children with lower peer preference show less improvement in response inhibition into adulthood.
- Peer rejection, not acceptance, is the key driver of these effects.

## Abstract

Peer problems are a pervasive issue for children with ADHD, but less is known about the role of peers in the development of executive functioning (EF). We examined the predictive relation between childhood peer preference (i.e., the extent to which one is liked vs. disliked by peers) and the development of various EF skills (response inhibition, working memory, and global EF) from childhood to early adulthood within a diverse female sample enriched for ADHD. We sampled 140 girls diagnosed with ADHD in childhood and 88 neurotypical comparison girls, matched for age and race. Girls were 6–12 years old at baseline and followed for three additional waves across 16 years. Peer preference was assessed via sociometric interviews in childhood; EF data were collected at all waves via neuropsychological tests. Through multilevel modeling, we evaluated relations between childhood peer preference and the development of each EF skill from childhood to early adulthood, adjusting for ADHD diagnostic status, verbal IQ, and socioeconomic status. We found that lower peer preference in childhood (a) was associated with poorer global EF across development and (b) predicted significantly less improvement in response inhibition from childhood to adulthood. Childhood ADHD diagnostic status was also related to lower global EF and response inhibition across development, but unlike peer preference, ADHD was not predictive of differences in EF growth. Secondary analyses revealed that peer rejection, not acceptance, drove these core findings. Findings highlight the influence of childhood peer preference on EF development, particularly response inhibition. We discuss intervention implications.