# Features influencing the health and economic impact of preventing COVID-19 in immunocompromised individuals

## TL;DR

This study models how long-acting antibodies could protect immunocompromised people from COVID-19 while considering health and economic impacts.

## Contribution

A novel modeling framework to assess the cost-effectiveness of LAAB-PrEP in immunocompromised individuals under varying shielding behaviors and variant uncertainties.

## Key findings

- LAAB-PrEP cost-effectiveness is influenced by shielding behavior, hospitalization risk, and antibody effectiveness.
- If LAAB-PrEP allows individuals to stop shielding, it could be cost-effective.
- Shielding behavior and time horizon significantly impact health outcomes and economic analysis.

## Abstract

Many immunocompromised individuals mount inadequate immune responses following COVID-19 vaccination, thus relying on other social distancing behaviours, particularly shielding, for protection, impacting their quality of life. However, little is known about historical/current levels and effectiveness of shielding or factors influencing individuals’ decision to continue shielding. Long-acting antibody pre-exposure prophylaxis (LAAB-PrEP) provides direct protection against COVID-19 in immunocompromised individuals who have been and may continue to shield. However, the proportion and incidence of circulating variants for which LAAB-PrEP would be effective is unpredictable. Given this uncertain behavioural and immuno-epidemiological context, we developed a modelling framework to explore features that most impact health outcomes and cost effectiveness of long-term administration of LAAB-PrEP against COVID-19 infection in immunocompromised individuals in the English context. The model predicted that the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) of LAAB-PrEP against COVID-19 in immunocompromised individuals will be largely driven by features of utility of shielding, current/future shielding behaviour, cost of shielding, risk of COVID-19 hospitalisation among immunocompromised individuals and the time horizon used for the cost-effectiveness analysis. The model estimated that for realistic ranges of influential factors, it is possible for LAAB-PrEP to be cost effective under the conditions that most immunocompromised individuals would shield indefinitely if it were not available but would switch to LAAB-PrEP if it were. Thus, if individuals stop shielding when taking LAAB-PrEP, then LAAB-PrEP is cost effective.

Vaccinations, including vaccinations against COVID-19, may not be very effective in people with weakened immune systems. This is because these immunocompromised individuals may not mount an adequate immune response to a vaccine. Individuals who are immunocompromised are at greater risk of severe COVID-19 than those who are not immunocompromised. It is therefore recommended that these individuals shield themselves, only going out when essential. However, this shielding behaviour reduces these individuals’ quality of life. A possible solution is to inject immunocompromised individuals with long-acting antibodies against COVID-19. Unfortunately, the level of protection gained from both shielding and long-acting antibodies is uncertain and comes at a high cost, financially and/or to immunocompromised individuals’ quality of life. Here, we used a theoretical, mathematical modelling approach to explore which factors might affect the health and economic impacts of these long-acting antibodies in various scenarios. By taking shielding behaviour into consideration, our model suggested that the expected health and economic impacts of long-acting antibodies for COVID-19 in individuals who are immunocompromised will be driven by the features of their shielding behaviour, how likely they are to die due to the underlying cause of their weakened immune system, how likely they are to be hospitalised due to their COVID-19 infection, and the effectiveness of long-acting antibodies in preventing clinically significant disease. Furthermore, our model suggested that if LAAB-PrEP enables immunocompromised individuals to stop shielding, it would be cost effective.