# Exploring the cortical involvement in sensorimotor integration during early stages of independent walking

## TL;DR

This study explores how the brain integrates sensory and motor information during the early stages of toddlers learning to walk.

## Contribution

The study provides new insights into the role of sensorimotor integration in the development of walking-related muscle synergies in toddlers.

## Key findings

- Four muscle synergies were sufficient to characterize gait across different developmental stages and support levels.
- Cortico-synergy coherence was observed only in synergies linked to the onset of walking, indicating sensorimotor cortex involvement.
- Reduced sensory loading decreased cortico-synergy coherence in toddlers with less walking experience.

## Abstract

The control of human locomotion is governed by a combination of congenital and emerging locomotor muscle synergies. The first arguably build on spinal and brainstem circuitries, whereas the latter have a cortical resemblance. By hypothesis this cortical activity reflects sensorimotor integration which matures during the development of walking. We therefore investigated the role of sensory information by manipulating the gravitational loading in 23 toddlers walking on an instrumented treadmill while recording 3D kinematics, EEG, and EMG of 24 trunk and lower extremity muscles. Sensory loading was manipulated via low and high levels of external body weight support. Cortico-synergy connectivity was compared between the two different support levels and at two stages of gait development: onset of independent walking (just after the first steps) and at six months of walking experience. These two age groups consisted of different subjects. For twelve toddlers data quantity and quality met requirements to enter analysis. Four muscle synergies sufficed to characterise gait, regardless of support level and developmental stage. Cortico-synergy coherence confirmed involvement of the sensorimotor cortex only in the two emerging synergies associated with walking onset. Reduced sensory loading was accompanied by a decreased coherence but only in toddlers with little walking experience. That gravitational loading alters the cortical resemblance of the synergies, especially at an early age, suggests that it reflects the integration of sensory information, at least to some extent. Our findings hint at the importance of sensorimotor integration in the emergence of the synergies linked to the onset of independent walking.

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00221-025-07099-4.