# Effect of Amphetamine Dependence on Redox State via Alteration of Urinary Levels of Major and Trace Elements: A Case-Control Study in the Saudi Population

## TL;DR

This study finds that amphetamine dependence in Saudi Arabia is linked to changes in urinary elements and increased oxidative stress.

## Contribution

The study identifies specific urinary element imbalances and redox state changes in amphetamine-dependent individuals in the Saudi population.

## Key findings

- Amphetamine-dependent individuals had higher urinary sodium and chloride but lower calcium compared to controls.
- Lipid peroxidase levels increased in substance users, indicating oxidative stress.
- Zinc, copper, and other elements correlated with lipid peroxidase and antioxidant capacity.

## Abstract

Background

Drug and substance abuse remains a major medical problem worldwide. Amphetamines are potent stimulants of the central nervous system. Amphetamine abuse is highly prevalent among drug-dependents. This study was conducted in Qassim, Saudi Arabia, to evaluate amphetamine's toxic effects on major and trace elements and their correlation with redox status.

Methods

The study involved amphetamine-only patients admitted to the Erada Rehabilitation Centre from March to October 2023. Urine samples were analysed from both normal subjects and amphetamine-dependent groups.

Results

Urinary sodium and chloride levels were significantly higher in the amphetamine-dependent group than in the control group, while their calcium levels decreased. Lipid peroxidase levels significantly increased in people with a substance use disorder (SUD), indicating oxidative stress. Together, their total antioxidant capacity decreased. Zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), sodium (Na), and total antioxidant capacity levels were positively correlated with lipid peroxidase.

Conclusions

Amphetamine-dependent people are more likely to experience a variety of health problems. This study found a direct correlation between an imbalance in major and trace elements and the redox status.