# Winter-ground microhabitat use by differently coloured phenotypes affects return rate in a long-distance migratory bird

## TL;DR

Differently colored pied flycatcher males use different winter habitats, which affects their return rates to breeding grounds depending on climate conditions.

## Contribution

This study shows that plumage coloration correlates with non-breeding habitat use and return rates in migratory birds under varying climate conditions.

## Key findings

- Browner males spent their non-breeding season in drier habitats than black males.
- Blacker males were more likely to return to breeding grounds after dry years compared to brown males.
- Phenotype-specific habitat use may affect population dynamics under climate change.

## Abstract

Migratory bird populations are declining globally at alarming rates. Non-breeding site conditions affect breeding populations, but generalising non-breeding habitat conditions over large spatial regions cannot address potential fine-scale differences across landscapes or local populations. Plumage characteristics can mediate the effects of environmental conditions on individual fitness. However, whether different phenotypes use distinctive non-breeding sites, and whether they respond to non-breeding site conditions differently remains largely unknown. Stable isotopes (δ13C, δ15N, δ2H) of inert tissues are useful to infer habitat characteristics and geographic origins where those tissues were grown. We collected winter-grown feathers from pied flycatchers (Ficedula hypoleuca) on their breeding grounds over several years from males whose dorsal plumage colouration ranged continuously from brown to black and assessed their stable isotope values as proxies of local habitat conditions. Based on feather δ2H profiles we found that browner males spent their non-breeding season in drier habitats than black males. Assignment to origin analysis shows potential regional non-breeding ground separation between differently coloured males. High within-individual repeatability of both δ13C and δ15N indicate the pied flycatcher males return yearly to similar areas. Blacker males were more likely to return to the breeding grounds after dry years compared with brown males. The opposite was found in wet years. Our study demonstrates that different phenotypes are exposed to different non-breeding site conditions which can differentially affect individual survivorship. This has important ramifications for population dynamics under predicted climate change scenarios where especially brown phenotype pied flycatcher males may be under a risk of decreasing.

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00442-024-05561-8.