Study of the Run-3 muon flux at the SND@LHC experiment

TL;DR

This study characterizes the muon flux at the SND@LHC experiment during Run-3, benchmarking simulations against measurements, analyzing background variations, and proposing mitigation strategies for future high-luminosity conditions.

Contribution

It provides a detailed comparison of measured and simulated muon fluxes, and develops mitigation strategies for increased backgrounds in future LHC runs.

Findings

Measured and simulated muon rates agree within 10-15%.

Horizontal crossing increased high-angle muon contribution.

Upgrade to silicon detectors will maintain efficiency at high rates.

Abstract

Long-range muons produced in proton-proton collisions at the ATLAS interaction point constitute the primary background for neutrino interaction searches at the SND@LHC experiment. This work presents a comprehensive characterization of the muon flux throughout LHC Run-3, benchmarking Monte Carlo simulations against experimental measurements. Measured and simulated muon rates agree within 10-15% across all Run-3 configurations. Following the substantial background increase in 2024 as a result of a beam optics change, the reversion to nominal optics in 2025 did not restore the 2022-2023 levels due to the unprecedented adoption of horizontal crossing in ATLAS. As enlightened by simulation results, the latter enhanced the contribution of high-angle muons originating from diffractive proton losses in the LHC Dispersion Suppressor region. Their identification enabled the design of mitigation strategies that were experimentally validated. The simulation framework was also applied to the future High-Luminosity LHC configuration, resulting in a considerable muon rate rise, driven by both the planned luminosity increase and the enlarged magnet aperture. Nevertheless, the upgrade from emulsion films to silicon vertex detectors will preserve the efficiency of the experiment even in such a high-rate environment.