Novelty-Driven Target-Space Discovery in Automated Electron and Scanning Probe Microscopy

TL;DR

This paper introduces a deep-kernel-learning framework called BEACON that actively guides discovery in target spaces during automated microscopy, enabling the identification of new behaviors beyond traditional image features.

Contribution

The paper presents a novel discovery-driven approach using deep-kernel-learning to explore target spaces in automated microscopy, with benchmarking and real experimental deployment.

Findings

Benchmarking framework for discovery algorithms

Successful deployment on STEM experiments

Enhanced exploration of response regimes

Abstract

Modern automated microscopy faces a fundamental discovery challenge: in many systems, the most important scientific information does not reside in the immediately visible image features, but in the target space of sequentially acquired spectra or functional responses, making it essential to develop strategies that can actively search for new behaviors rather than simply optimize known objectives. Here, we developed a deep-kernel-learning BEACON framework that is explicitly designed to guide discovery in the target space by learning structure-property relationships during the experiment and using that evolving model to seek diverse response regimes. We first established the method through demonstration workflows built on pre-acquired ground-truth datasets, which enabled direct benchmarking against classical acquisition strategies and allowed us to define a set of monitoring functions for comparing exploration quality, target-space coverage, and surrogate-model behavior in a transparent and reproducible manner. This benchmarking framework provides a practical basis for evaluating discovery-driven algorithms, not just optimization performance. We then operationalized and deployed the workflow on STEM, showing that the approach can transition from offline validation to real experimental implementation. To support adoption and extension by the broader community, the associated notebooks are available, allowing users to reproduce the workflows, test the benchmarks, and adapt the method to their own instruments and datasets.