Realization of the SI Second Defined by Geometric Mean of Multiple Clock Transitions

TL;DR

This paper explores practical methods for realizing the SI second using a geometric mean of multiple optical clock transitions, addressing uncertainties, operational differences, and dead time effects to guide future redefinition efforts.

Contribution

It introduces and compares two routes for realizing the SI second via geometric and arithmetic means, providing explicit conditions and uncertainty models for multi-clock systems.

Findings

Geometric mean route often yields lower uncertainty under certain conditions.

Explicit uncertainty expressions incorporate measurement and frequency ratio uncertainties.

Time-segmented combination method addresses dead time and correlations effectively.

Abstract

The current definition of the SI second is based on the 133Cs ground-state hyperfine transition in the microwave domain, with the most accurate realizations achieving fractional frequency uncertainties of about (1-2)E16. In contrast, state-of-the-art optical clocks now demonstrate estimated uncertainties two to three orders of magnitude lower, prompting discussion on the redefinition of the SI second. Several options for the new definition have been proposed, one of which introduces a constant N defined as the weighted geometric mean of multiple clock transition frequencies. In this work, we investigate how N can be practically realized when not all defining transitions are available and when multiple optical clocks operate with different performance levels and non-overlapping uptimes. We consider two complementary realization and reconstruction routes. One route is based on geometric-mean combinations, and the other is based on arithmetic-mean combinations. We derive consistent uncertainty expressions that incorporate both measurement uncertainties and, where required, uncertainties of recommended frequencies or frequency ratios. Using analytic three-transition case studies, we identify the parameter regimes in which each route yields a lower total uncertainty and provide explicit conditions for the crossover between them. We further address the dominant role of dead time when a hydrogen maser serves as a flywheel reference by introducing a time-segmented, time-weighted combination based on coefficient and covariance matrices, which accounts for overlapping operation and correlations across measurement intervals. Our findings offer practical guidance for minimizing total uncertainty in multi-clock realizations and contribute to ongoing efforts toward redefining the SI second.