Prospects for Direct Electron Detectors in Ultrafast Electron Diffraction and Scattering Experiments

TL;DR

This paper evaluates the limitations of hybrid pixel counting detectors in ultrafast electron diffraction experiments, highlighting count rate constraints and proposing strategies for improved data handling and detector adaptation.

Contribution

It provides a detailed analysis of count loss issues in HPCDs under ultrashort pulsed electron beams and suggests modifications for better performance in ultrafast experiments.

Findings

Count losses are significantly worse in pulsed experiments.

HPCDs saturate above approximately 2 electrons per pixel per pulse.

Normalization strategies and models for measurement uncertainties are developed.

Abstract

Ultrafast electron diffraction and phonon-diffuse scattering (UED(S)) experiments make use of photo-induced changes to electron scattering intensity across 2D detectors to report on a very wide range of dynamic structural phenomena in molecules and materials. Hybrid pixel counting detectors (HPCDs) are a promising technology for improved sensitivity and signal-to-noise in UED(S) experiments, as they offer near-zero readout noise and dark counts with the possibility of new acquisition modalities (e.g. shot-to-shot normalization) due to their high frame rates. However, it is well known that HPCDs suffer from count losses at high electron fluxes even in CW beam applications. How this translates to ultrashort electron pulse exposures has yet to be determined and is critical to understanding the application of this technology to ultrafast electron scattering experiments. Here we show that count losses are significantly exacerbated in ultrafast (pulsed) experiments, and that HPCDs require unconventional data handling and saturate above $\approx\!2$ electrons per pixel per pulse. This count-rate limitation presents a severe constraint on electron bunch charge when interrogating single crystal samples. Normalization strategies to optimize signal-to-noise in UED(S) and a complete model for measurement uncertainties using HPCDs are developed and tested using a large data set. Finally, we suggest ways HPCDs could be better adapted to ultrashort pulsed beam experiments.