Interior dynamics of envelopes around disk-embedded planets

TL;DR

This study uses 3D hydrodynamical simulations to explore how different cooling and heating rates affect the structure and dynamics of gaseous envelopes around forming planets, revealing three distinct regimes with implications for planet formation.

Contribution

It systematically characterizes the three regimes of envelope cooling and their structural features, advancing understanding of gas exchange processes in planet formation models.

Findings

Identified three cooling regimes: nearly isothermal, radiative, and fully convective envelopes.

Showed that radiative layers trap dust and vapors, affecting envelope composition.

Implications for planet growth and volatile depletion in inner disk regions.

Abstract

In the core accretion scenario, forming planets start to acquire gaseous envelopes while accreting solids. Conventional one-dimensional models assume envelopes to be static and isolated. However, recent three-dimensional simulations demonstrate dynamic gas exchange from the envelope to the surrounding disk. This process is controlled by the balance between heating, through the accretion of solids, and cooling, which is regulated by poorly-known opacities. In this work, we systemically investigate a wide range of cooling and heating rates, using three-dimensional hydrodynamical simulations. We identify three distinct cooling regimes. Fast-cooling envelopes ($\beta \lesssim 1$, with $\beta$ the cooling time in units of orbital time) are nearly isothermal and have inner radiative layers that are shielded from recycling flows. In contrast, slow cooling envelopes ($\beta\gtrsim10^3$) become fully convective. In the intermediate regime ($1\lesssim\beta\lesssim300$), envelopes are characterized by a three-layer structure, comprising an inner convective, a middle radiative, and an outer recycling layer. The development of this radiative layer traps small dust and vapour released from sublimated species. In contrast, fully convective envelopes efficiently exchange material from inner to outer envelope. Such fully convective envelopes are likely to emerge in the inner parts of protoplanetary disks ($\lesssim$ 1 au) where cooling times are long, implying that inner-disk super-Earths may see their growth stalled and be volatile depleted.