Physically-Based Simulation of Automotive LiDAR

TL;DR

This paper introduces a physically-based analytic model for simulating automotive LiDAR systems, incorporating environmental and system-specific factors, and demonstrates its calibration on two different LiDAR sensors.

Contribution

The paper presents a systematic method for modeling automotive LiDAR using physical rendering principles, calibrated with laboratory measurements for different sensor types.

Findings

Model accurately reproduces LiDAR signals including blooming and ambient light effects.

Calibration successfully applied to two distinct automotive LiDAR systems.

Provides a flexible framework adaptable to various LiDAR configurations.

Abstract

We present an analytic model for simulating automotive time-of-flight (ToF) LiDAR that includes blooming, echo pulse width, and ambient light, along with steps to determine model parameters systematically through optical laboratory measurements. The model uses physically based rendering (PBR) in the near-infrared domain. It assumes single-bounce reflections and retroreflections over rasterized rendered images from shading or ray tracing, including light emitted from the sensor as well as stray light from other, non-correlated sources such as sunlight. Beams from the sensor and sensitivity of the receiving diodes are modeled with flexible beam steering patterns and with non-vanishing diameter. Different (all non-real time) computational approaches can be chosen based on system properties, computing capabilities, and desired output properties. Model parameters include system-specific properties, namely the physical spread of the LiDAR beam, combined with the sensitivity of the receiving diode; the intensity of the emitted light; the conversion between the intensity of reflected light and the echo pulse width; and scenario parameters such as environment lighting, positioning, and surface properties of the target(s) in the relevant infrared domain. System-specific properties of the model are determined from laboratory measurements of the photometric luminance on different target surfaces aligned with a goniometer at 0.01{\deg} resolution, which marks the best available resolution for measuring the beam pattern. The approach is calibrated for and tested on two automotive LiDAR systems, the Valeo Scala Gen. 2 and the Blickfeld Cube 1. Both systems differ notably in their properties and available interfaces, but the relevant model parameters could be extracted successfully.