Non-unitary Quantum Physical Unclonable Functions: Modelling, Simulation, and Evaluation under Open Quantum Dynamics

TL;DR

This paper introduces non-unitary quantum physical unclonable functions (QPUFs) that utilize open quantum system dynamics, including decoherence and dissipation, to enhance security and robustness against attacks in quantum hardware authentication.

Contribution

It proposes three novel non-unitary QPUF architectures based on open quantum system models, expanding the security framework beyond ideal unitary assumptions.

Findings

Non-unitary QPUFs achieve strong uniqueness and unforgeability.

Simulation shows controllable reliability trade-offs due to stochastic noise.

Lindbladian QPUF exhibits exponential resistance to modeling attacks.

Abstract

Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) provide hardware-level security by exploiting intrinsic randomness to produce device-unique responses. However, machine learning and side-channel attacks increasingly undermine their classical assumptions, calling for new approaches to ensure unforgeability. Quantum mechanics naturally supports this goal through intrinsic randomness and the no-cloning theorem, motivating the study of Quantum Physical Unclonable Functions (QPUFs). Yet, existing QPUF models often assume ideal unitary dynamics, neglecting non-unitary effects such as decoherence and dissipation that arise in real quantum devices. This work introduces a new class of non-unitary QPUFs that leverage open quantum system dynamics as a foundation for security. Three architectures are proposed: the Dissipative QPUF (D-QPUF), which uses amplitude damping as an entropy source; the Measurement-Feedback QPUF (MF-QPUF), which employs mid-circuit measurements and conditional unitaries; and the Lindbladian QPUF (L-QPUF), which models Markovian noise via the Lindblad master equation and Trotter-Suzuki decomposition. Simulation results show that these non-unitary designs achieve strong uniqueness, uniformity, and unforgeability, with controllable reliability trade-offs from stochastic noise. The L-QPUF, in particular, exhibits exponential modeling resistance under limited challenge-response access. By reframing environmental noise as a constructive resource, this work establishes a framework for noise-aware quantum hardware authentication and highlights non-unitary evolution as a viable foundation for post-quantum security.