Molecular-sized bubbles in a liquid: free energy of formation beyond the capillarity approximation

TL;DR

This study uses molecular simulations to analyze the free-energy of formation of transient bubbles in liquids, revealing limitations of classical models and proposing corrections for small bubble sizes.

Contribution

It introduces a method to determine bubble free-energy across a wide size range and demonstrates the failure of the capillarity approximation for small bubbles.

Findings

Capillarity approximation fails for small bubbles.

An extra linear term in bubble radius improves free-energy estimates.

Divergence occurs in bubble volume distribution at small sizes.

Abstract

We investigate the transient bubbles that spontaneously appear in a simple liquid using molecular simulations. The objective is to deduce the free-energy of formation of the bubbles $W(s)$ from the bubble size distribution $p(s)$ through the hypothesis of a Boltzmann distribution: $W(s) = -kT \ln p(s)$. The bubbles are detected and characterized using a method based on a grid superimposed on the liquid, efficient for bubbles larger than the grid mesh. We first investigate how the results are affected by the mesh choice, and show that using several mesh values allows to detect bubbles in a wide range of sizes with minimal computing cost. The free-energy of formation of a bubble can then be deduced for a large range of sizes, with particular emphasis in the region of vanishing bubbles scarcely investigated in previous works. We first show that the usual Boltzmann relation has to be modified when the bubble size is characterized by its volume. In particular, the bubble volume distribution diverges for a vanishing bubble, which should be taken into account before calculating its free-energy of formation from the above formula. An analytical expansion, valid for any interacting spherical molecules, confirms this observation. We then show that the capillarity approximation fails for small bubbles: an extra contribution, linear with the bubble radius, has to be added to the usual quadratic (surface) and cubic (volume) contributions to the free-energy. This extra term most probably relates to the irregular shape of the tiny bubbles.