Traffic noise assessment in urban Bulgaria using explainable machine learning

TL;DR

This study compares machine learning models to predict traffic noise in Bulgarian cities, finding that extreme gradient boosting provides the most accurate estimates and reveals significant noise exposure for urban populations.

Contribution

It introduces a machine learning approach for detailed traffic noise mapping in Eastern European cities, outperforming traditional land-use regression models.

Findings

XGB achieved the highest predictive accuracy (R2=0.680).

Major roads and residential features are key noise predictors.

Approximately 97% of urban residents face harmful noise levels.

Abstract

Fine-grained noise maps are vital for epidemiological studies on traffic noise. However, detailed information on traffic noise is often limited, especially in Eastern Europe. Rigid linear noise land-use regressions are typically employed to estimate noise levels; however, machine learning likely offers more accurate noise predictions. We innovated by comparing the predictive accuracies of supervised machine learning models to estimate traffic noise levels across the five largest Bulgarian cities. In situ A-weighted equivalent continuous sound levels were obtained from 232 fixed-site monitors across these cities. We included transport- and land-use-related predictors using 50-1,000 m buffers. Extreme gradient boosting (XGB) had the highest ten-fold cross-validated fit (R2=0.680) and the lowest root mean square error (RMSE=4.739), insignificantly besting the random forest-based model (R2=0.667, RMSE=4.895). Support vector regression (R2=0.633, RMSE=5.358), elastic net (R2=0.568, RMSE=5.625), and linear regression (R2=0.548, RMSE=5.569) performed significantly worse. Shapley values for the XGB showed that the length of major roads within 100 m buffers, footways within 50 m buffers, residential roads within 50 m buffers, and the number of buildings within 50 m buffers were important non-linear predictors. Our spatially resolved noise maps revealed striking geographic noise variations and that, on average, 96.8% of the urban population experiences harmful noise levels.